State Government and Administration: Union-State administrative, legislative and financial relations; Role of the Finance Commission; Governor; Chief Minister; Council of Ministers; Chief Secretary; State Secretariat; Directorates

The relationship between the Union and states regarding governance and administration has already been discussed quite in detail in a previous post of this blog - http://publicadministrationtheone.blogspot.in/2012/09/union-government-and-administration.html

However,it was in light of the Union and its powers.

Therefore, today we will discuss the functions assigned to the state governments in the Constitution and the way in which the state administration is organised to perform these functions.

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STATE GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION:

 The Constitution provides for the powers of the Union and state governments and we have already discussed the Union list in the previous article of this blog.

So,today we will elucidate on the state list.

The state list comprises 61 items over which the state has exclusive jurisdiction like public order and police,agriculture,forests,fisheries,public health,local government,etc. 

UNION - STATE  ADMINISTRATIVE & LEGISLATIVE RELATIONS:

Though the subjects in the state list above are under the exclusive jurisdiction of the states,but,under the following circumstances the Union Parliament can legislate on these matters:

i) In national interest,the Council Of states ( Rajya Sabha) by a resolution of 2/3 of its members present and voting may authorise Parliament to legislate on a state subject. Such authorisation may be for one year at a time,but, can be renewed by a fresh resolution.

ii) Under a proclamation of Emergency,the Parliament may legislate on a state subject.

iii) With the consent of two or more states,Union Parliament may legislate on a state subject with respect to the consenting states.

iv) Parliament has powers to legislate with reference to any subject ( including a state subject) for the purpose of implementing treaties or international agreements and conventions.

v) When a proclamation is issued by the President on the failure of constitutional machinery in any state,he may declare that the powers of the state legislature shall be exercised by or under the authority of Parliament.

There are three types of bills in the state legislature which are - Ordinary bills,Money bills & Constitutional amendment bills and the bill passing procedure is the same as the union parliament if there are two houses in the state. If there is only one house then it is to be passed by that house and presented to the governor for giving it his assent for it to become an Act. The governor can send the bill back for a reconsideration or reserve it for the assent of the President.

Now,there is a third list too, known as the Concurrent list on which both the Union as well as states have concurrent jurisdiction. Lets take a look at that.

In this context do refer to the Punchchi Commission's recommendations on Centre-State relations in - http://www.preservearticles.com/2011092814259/what-were-the-main-recommendations-of-punchhi-commission.html

&

Key recommendations of the Sarkaria Commision's report on Centre - State relations as well - http://www.outlookindia.com/article.aspx?209702

CONCURRENT LIST:

The Concurrent List comprises of 52 items on which both the Union as well as states have concurrent jurisdiction. The important subjects are - Criminal Law and Procedure,Marriage,Trusts,Civil Procedure,Insurance,Social and Economic Planning,etc.

However, pre dominance in this list is given to the Union when there is a repugnancy between Union and the state law relating to the same subject. If,the state law was reserved for a Presidential assent and subsequently receives it then the state law may prevail notwithstanding such repugnancy but it would still be competent for the Parliament to override such state law by subsequent legislation.

Any dispute regarding the interpretation of the entries in the three lists is to be decided by the Courts. And even in the interpretations the Union is given more priority and prevalence.

Though the executive powers lie with the state legislatures in regards to the Concurrent List,however, :

i) Where there is a law of Parliament relating to such subjects vests some executive function in the Union,e.g. Industrial Disputes Act,1947, then the Union will take over.

ii) Where provisions of Constitution itself vest some executive functions upon the Union,e.g. implementation of treaty or international obligation.

Apart from an Emergency,the Union has the power in normal times as well to give directions to the state governments in the exercise of their executive powers in the following cases:

i) To ensure compliance with Union laws.

ii) To ensure that exercise of executive power of the state does not interfere with the exercise of the executive power of Union.

iii) To ensure construction and maintenance of the means of communication of national or military importance by the state.

iv) To ensure protection of railways in the state.

v) To ensure implementation of schemes for the welfare of SC & ST.

vi) To ensure that the administration of a state is carried on in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution.

The All India Services which are IAS and IPS form an integrated well knit service pool to cooperatively manage important and crucial sectors of administration in the country between both the centre and states. THe recruitment,training,promotion,disciplinary matters are determined by the state government and on entry of an official,he is allocated to a state of his cadre to serve under the state government. After acquainting himself,the officer moves on to the centre to occupy positions of responsibility in the Central Secretariat or other important central govt. organisations. Thus,the official is appointed by the centre but serves the states and takes his experience to the centre and thus represents the state needs at all necessary times.

Constitution of Joint PSCs for two or more states is an arrangement when two or more states agree to have one PSC and for it to come into effect,the Parliament passes a law.

There is a High Court of every state and at times for proper administration purposes there is one court for two or more states. The judges of High Court are appointed by the President on consultation with the CJI of the Supreme Court and the governor of the respective state.

Inter State Council enquires into and advises upon disputes which may have arisen between states and in addition it may also investigate and discuss subjects of common interest between the union and states or between two or more states in order to facilitate coordination of policy and action. They are setup by the President and its examples are - Central Council of Health,Central Council of Local Self Government,Council of sales tax,etc.

Inter state water disputes act,1956 was enacted by the Parliament setting up tribunals for adjudication of water disputes between union and a state or two or more states and between one state and another or two others,etc.

Other devices in practice to secure union-state cooperation and conflict resolution also exist which are extra constitutional devices like Governors Conference headed by the President ,Chief Ministers conference,Conference of IGPs of states,Planning Commission and NDC discussions on five year plans,etc where representatives of all states get together and discuss various issues within themselves and the Union for a consensus.

Other techniques of executive control over the states by the Union and Parliament are the power to appoint and dismiss Governors,High court judges,state public service commissions rests with the President.

Emergency as well as legislative techniques have already been discussed above,however,one must note that if the the President through the governor of a state is convinced that there is a situation in that state where the administration cannot be carried on in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution then the President declares a state emergency under article 356 of the Indian Constitution and President's rule(Parliament takes over all functions of state govt.) prevails over it until the situation is restored to normal. This decision of the President must be approved by the Parliament within 2 months of the President's declaration and can be imposed for 6 months lasting for a period of maximum three years and ratified for extension by the Parliament every six months.

The Union has the constitutional duty to intervene and protect every state against external as well as internal aggression by releasing the armed forces under it which are, the CRPF,BSF,etc. At times the Union does not require the consent of the state and can take action at its discretion regarding the same.

Parliament is authorised to make grants to any state which is need of assistance in order to correct inter-state disparities in financial resources and to exercise control and coordination over welfare schemes of the states on national basis.

Grants are also provided by the Parliament for development of tribal areas in Assam and schemes for STs and raising the level of administration of scheduled areas . Detailed Financial relations of Union-state comes under the ambit of Finance Commission and will be discussed under that later in this article.

ROLE OF FINANCE COMMISSION:

The Constitution authorises the President of India to constitute a Finance Commission(Constitutional body) once in every five years. It is expected to make recommendations relating to allocation of revenues to the Central and state governments,grants-in-aid by the Union to the states and other financial matters like working with the State Finance Commissions and suggest measures to augment the Consolidated fund of states so as to provide additional resources to Panchayats and Municipalities in state.

The Commission came into effect in 1951,under article 280 of the Indian Constitution. It consists of a chairman and four other members. For details - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finance_Commission_of_India

However,transfers through the Finance Commission contribute to only about 1/3rd of the total transfers from Union to states. The rest are channeled through the Planning Commission and discretionary grants from Centre to states. This has led to a friction between the two and reduces the role of the Finance Commission to a mere recommending body in matters of non-plan resources requirements and its powers being usurped by an extra constitutional body which is the Planning Commission and this adversely affects the plan expenditure as some states end up with non-plan surplus and use it in the Plan expenditure and other states are left high and dry because the Finance Commission has its own formula of calculating resources to be divided and the Planning Commission has its own. Therefore various Finance Commissions recommendations like the ninth finance commission's recommendations should be considered with all seriousness and implemented to solve this problem. Please refer to the Ninth Finance Commission's recommendations here - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finance_Commission_of_India

ROLE OF GOVERNOR:

The Indian Constitution provides for a Parliamentary form of govt. at the centre as well as state levels. The Governor is the Constitutional head of the state govt. and acts on the advice of the Council of Ministers headed by the Chief Minister.

The Governor is appointed by the President for a term of five years and holds office during his pleasure and can be reappointed after his tenure of the same state or of another state.

The Constitution provides the governor with many executive,legislative,judicial and emergency powers. Governor appoints the Chief Minister and on his advice,the Council Of Ministers. He also appoints many other members of state PSC,Advocate General,Senior Civil Servants,etc. The entire executive work of the state is carried on in his name.

The Governor is a part of the state legislature and possesses the same administrative,legislative emergency and judicial powers with respect to the state the same way as the President has towards the Union Parliament and govt.

However, he has the power to reserve any Bill passed by the state legislature for the assent of the President. He also lays before the state legislature the audit reports of the CAG.

Discretionary powers given to the Governor even though he is supposed to act in accordance with the advice tendered by the Council of Ministers has stirred up a lot of controversy in the recent times. The major cases of this are:

i) Appointment of Chief Ministers - When there is a majority party in the legislature recommending their leader's name to the Governor,then he has no choice but to accept the same. However,when there is no absolute majority then the Governor's discretion comes into play. Here different criteria has been seen being followed by different governors in similar circumstances. And, this has eroded the neutral office and status of the governor as many term it as a tilt towards the ruling central/union party who appoints the governor in order to prove his loyalty and fulfill his vested interests.

ii) Dismissal of a Ministry - The Chief Minister and its Ministry hold office during the pleasure of the Governor,and this pleasure is not subject to any scrutiny. However,this discretion of the Governor has to be exercised judiciously. But, unfortunately there have been many instances where the Governor without asking the ruling part of state to prove its majority has dismissed it and called for fresh elections. This was interpreted by the opposition as a deliberate attempt on the part of Governor of pleasing the ruling party at the Centre.

iii) Dissolution Of the Assembly - For dissolving a state assembly the Governor is to be aided and advised by the state council of ministers. However,this has not been followed and the Governor has time and again ignored this advice stating that as long as there is a possibility of forming a govt. nothing should be done. Here also the Governor's have been termed as central agents by the opposition.

iv) Use of Emergency powers - Many a times there have been repeated attempts of the Governor trying to usurp the power of the state govt. by improperly and unnecessarily advising the President to declare a state emergency for the smallest of issues.

Thus, this shows the Governor's office in a bad light,however,this institution cannot be done away with and helps the coordination between centre and states. But still major reforms and revamping is needed for this office to be kept neutral.

One must pay close attention to the recommendations of the Sarkaria Commission in respect to Centre-State relations and in respect to the Governor's role it suggested that:

i) The appointment of the Governor should be made from a panel to be prepared by the State Legislature.

ii) From a panel prepared by the state government or invariably by the Chief Minister or

iii) Invariably in consultation with the state chief minister. The reason for this being that for smooth functioning of the Parliamentary system there has to be a personal rapport between the Chief Minister and the Governor but this has not been implemented in the recent years.  It also recommended a person to be appointed as governor who is an imminent personality and has kept away from politics for many years so that he is neutral and unbiased. It also recommended for the appointment to come under Parliament scrutiny and be reviewed by the Parliamentary Commitee befor being appointed. These recommendations though appreciated and debated still remain on paper due to various reasons and vested interests.

ROLE OF CHIEF MINISTER:

The Chief Minister performs the same function in respect of the state government as the Prime Minister does in respect of the Union Govt. However,as the Prime Minister is termed as the 'first among equals' in his rank as he heads the Union Council Of Ministers,the Chief Minister does not have this privilege as the real power vests with his state's council of ministers,but he/she has nonetheless acquired a very special role in the exercise of his/her executive power and is considered the prime mover of the state's executive government.

The Chief Minister is appointed by the Governor and holds office during the Governor's pleasure. However,when there is an absolute majority in the legislative assembly of the state by a single largest party then the governor only plays a ceremonial role. He invites the leader of the majority party to form a government and cannot dismiss him as long as he enjoys the legislative assembly's confidence.

He assigns portfolios to his Council of Ministers and appoints them through the Governor and can change them whenever he likes or feels fit and therefore the ministers remain in awe of him. He coordinates between the state Council of Ministers and oversees the decisions of the various state departments are coherent. The Council of Ministers are collectively responsible to the state legislative assembly. He sets his state Cabinet's agenda and greatly influences its decisions and takes many important decisions in coordination even though those ministries have been allotted to individual ministers.

However, the Chief Minister commands such power and obedience among his Council of Ministers only when he has an absolute majority in the assembly and gets strengthened if his party is in majority across the state as then he would not have to listen to his party's national leaders/high command. The Chief Ministers stands weakened when heading a coalition govt. or a faction ridden party as then he is caught up in striking balances and compromises only between the various coalition partners.

The Governor's public speeches as well as appearances have to be in accordance with the policy laid down by the state's council of ministers headed by the Chief Minister and is to be approved by the state Cabinet.

In relation to the state legislature,the Chief Minister is the leader of the House(state legislative assembly) . Vidhan Sabha - Lower house/house of people of the state, Vidhan Parishad - upper house/council of states of a state legislature. However,it is upto the state govt. whether it wants a upper house or not,it is not compulsory,but the Vidhan Sabha is.

He sets the legislative agenda in the House as he is the one who introduces various policy bills decided and approved by the state Cabinet ministers in the state assembly and he is also the responsibility of updating the assembly regarding the various activities of the state govt. by answering questions,making statements,intervening in debates,etc.

The Chief Minister being the leader of the political executive controls the entire state bureaucracy and in doing so is assisted by the state Secretariat headed by the Chief Secretary. He approves all senior appointments like secretaries,additional/joint/deputy secretaries,Heads of Departments,Chairmen and Managing Directors of PSUs,etc. and through his cabinet,he controls that service conditions and disciplinary matters. He provides them leadership in order to extract good performance and morale. He keeps a check on them through administrative channels as well as through his own mechanisms like party workers,complaints from aggrieved persons and actual observations during tours,etc.

　

ROLE OF STATE COUNCIL OF MINISTERS:

The real executive power vests with the state Council Of Ministers,as has been stated above. On the pattern of the union govt, the Ministers of state governments are also of the following categories:

i) State Cabinet Ministers

ii) Ministers Of state

iii) Deputy Ministers

iv) Parliamentary secretaries

In the Union govt. only Union Cabinet Ministers can attend the Union Cabinet meetings, but in the state govt. system all ministers can attend the state cabinet meeting making discussions on serious matters rather difficult. To help address this various state governments have adopted the device of forming Cabinet Committees (standing as well as ad-hoc) for studying the issues in detail and then presenting their recommendations based on facts and estimates which is found to be much more acceptable to the various ministers of the state for arriving on a consensus.

The state Council of ministers are the highest policy-making body of the state government and lays down all legislative and administrative policies within its competence. It also reviews the implementation of those policies and reviews them based on feed backs received.

The state Council of Ministers has unfettered powers regarding state administration but if there is a limit imposed on it by the Indian Constitution and laws passed by the union and state legislature then those will have to be followed. There are ministries as well as departments in the state administration akin to the Union govt.

　

ROLE OF STATE CHIEF SECRETARY:

The three components of a state government are : the Minister,the Secretary and the Executive head( most cases called the director of directorate office).

The chief secretary of a state is the kingpin of his state's secretariat including all secretarial departments of state. Chief Secretary is the chief advisor to the Chief Minister of the state and secretary to the state's cabinet. He is also the head of the state civil services and directs the state's administrative system as he heads the state's General Administration Dept. which is directly under the Chief Minister. He is the main channel of communication between his state's govt. and the Union govt. and other state govts as well as the chief spokesman and public relations officer of the state govt. He/she holds the rank of the Secretary to the Govt. of India and receives emoluments admissible to the above mentioned rank.

He obtains coordination between various state departments and ministry secretariats and heads the various committees set up to ensure smooth transaction of administration business and also coordinates between the state and Union govt as well govts of other states and his/her state for smooth governance.

The functions of the state Chief Secretary are so wide in its ambit that at the central/union level if this work is to be compared , this work is shared between the Union Cabinet secretary,Home secretary and the Finance secretary.

Another important factor of this position is that the Chief secretary need not be the senior most civil servant of the state (as in the Union govt. where the Union Cabinet Secretary is the senior most civil servant) and is neither under a tenure system and he can either retire from the state level or move on to the central govt. to take up a more important position.

Thus,one can understand Chief Secretary's  role and its indispensability to state government's functioning.

ROLE OF STATE SECRETARIAT:

Out of the three components of a state govt listed just above this topic,the Minister and the Secretary together constitute the state Secretariat(meaning Office of the secretary and at times also referred to as the office of the Minister). To define it according to renowned Public Administration guru S.R Maheshwari - The expression Secretariat is used to refer to the complex of departments whose heads politically are ministers and administratively are the Secretaries.

The main functions of the state Secretariat as per the Administrative Reform Commission's Report on state administration is as follows:

i) Assisting the ministers in policy making,in modifying the policies from time to time and in the discharge of their legislative responsibilities.

ii) Framing draft legislation and rules and regulations.

iii) Coordination of policies and programmes,supervision and control over their execution,and review of results.

iv) Budgeting and control of expenditure.

v) Maintaining contact with the GOI and other state governments.

vi) Overseeing the smooth and efficient running of the administrative machinery and initiating measures to develop greater personnel and organisational competence.

The administrative philosophy to which the secretariat system owes its existence is that policy making must be kept separate from policy execution. Several advantages are claimed in favour of such an arrangement so that policy formulators should not be burdened with administrative functioning and negotiations and the administrative experts should not be saddled with policy making and only employ their expertise in a free and best possible manner.

Apart from general secretarial administration to the ministers and coordinating and directing the various state ministry secretaries and departments (also refer to the state secretary topic discussed above for detailed functions) the state secretariat also has financial functions.

In matters of finance, the state secretariat sees to the following aspects - scrutiny and approval of departmental budget estimates,major appropriation of accounts,surrender of funds and supplementary grants,all proposals involving new items of expenditure,financial sanctions not within the competence of the head of the department, sanction of expenditure from the contingency fund,write off cases beyond the powers of heads of departments and audit objections regarding the offices of the heads of departments.

　

　

ROLE OF STATE DIRECTORATES:

Directorates are seen as the chief executive organs of the government. In the Secretariat policy formulation functions are generally headed by Generalists. While in the Directorates policy implementation functions are headed by specialists. Directorates are arranged on the principle of Division of Labour and to have subject-wise focus Directorates are established. These are responsible for the detailed implementation of plans/programmes at the level of Directorate who direct the scheme of implementation as well as assign the Field establishments their respective roles. Resource management of effective implementation of plans is carried out at this level. Directorates ensure the will of the Secretariat find its physical execution. They also help the Secretariat in the assessment of implementation of various plans and programmes. They act as a vital links between the Field establishments and the Secretariat. Secretariat acts as the head and the Directorates act as the head and hands both at the implementation level.

　

　

ROLE OF STATE REVENUE BOARDS:

Revenue Board is seen as the apex arrangement in a state in relation to revenue matters. Its role is majorly advisory and analyses the Revenue requirements of the state and the revenue resources available in the respective state. Revenue Boards is created by an act of the state legislature and is sufficiently autonomous in regards to revenue framework. It acts as overall supervisory body at the state level in regards to revenue assessment and collection functioning. It may be headed by a single member or many members. It analysis the rate of development in the state and the overall economic scenario existing in relation to the state revenues and on its analysis the principles of revenue allocation and assessment of the state may be carried out. It is seen as the apex appellate authority in regards to matters of Land Revenue Assessment. And, in many states the Revenue Board is seen as writing the Annual Confidential Reports of the Divisional Commissioner and District Collectors(senior to Dist. Collector handling many districts,this would be discussed in detail in the next post of this blog).

　

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The next post on this blog will cover:

District Administration since Independence: Changing role of the Collector;

Union -state local relations;

Imperatives of development management and law and order administration;

District administration and democratic decentralization.

Plans and Priorities: Machinery of planning; Role, composition and functions of the Planning Commission and the National Development Council; ‘Indicative’ planning; Process of plan formulation at Union and State levels; Constitutional Amendments (1992) and decentralized planning for economic development and social justice.

Before proceeding directly to the Planning Machinery and processes of India, it is necessary to understand and get a clear idea of the concept of Planning in India and also the role of Priorities in those Plans. So, let's begin.

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PLANS AND PRIORITIES:
Planning was a topic of interest and debate pre dating Independence. In 1940,the Indian National Congress advocated and set up the National Planning Committee in order to prepare comprehensive plans of reconstruction of undivided India. Independent India adopted planning in the 1950's as its development vehicle.

 Planning is a preparation for action and conscious effort to achieve desired ends.A Plan is a long term goal & plans precede as well as succeed policy. To explain this in detail,lets take the example of the Directive Principles Of State Policy(DPSP) (which are enshrined in Part IV,article 36 to 50 of the Indian Constitution)and its relation with Planning and Policy making in India.

DPSP as stated by the Indian Constitution is fundamental in the governance of the country and it shall be the duty of the State ( for the original as well as contemporary definition of State under Article 12 of the Indian Constitution,please refer http://www.legalserviceindia.com/article/l271-Article-12.html) to apply these principles while making laws. Article 38 and 39 (a),(b) & (c) of the DPSP's in the Indian Constitution are cited in the resolution of 15th March 1950 by which the Planning Commission was setup. It is worth noting that it has been stated by distinguished jurists,economists as well as theorists that the DPSPs can never go out of relevance as it is relevant to all times and is an everlasting set of guidelines for formulating State policies. To go through the DPSPs , please refer - http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_India/Part_IV

So,coming back to the relationship between a Plan and a Policy,one should note that the DPSP is the generalised plan of the Constitution founders that details the vision of future India. And, policies(definitive framework given to the generalised plan) are to be made by the State on the lines of this Plan/Principles with help of the Planning Commission. And the Planning Commission also makes a final Plan of implementation of that Policy which is then executed by the executive wing of the Govt. Of India (Centre and states).

Lets understand the definition of Policy - Public  Policy can be described as the overall framework within which the actions of the government are undertaken to achieve its goals. It is a purposive and consistent course of action devised in response to a perceived problem of a constituency, formulated by a specific political process, and adopted, implemented, and enforced by a public agency. For more details on Public Policy,refer -http://publicadministrationtheone.blogspot.in/2012/08/public-policy-models-of-policy-making_27.html

Now,since we have understood the Plan(generalised)- Policy(establishment of overall definite framework to achieve the generalised plan)- Plan(Implementation) relationship and working,let us move on to understood the term Priority in the working of Plans.

Within a Plan(after a Policy is formulated) that is devised with objectives to be achieved and the actions/initiatives/means to be used for achieving the same through Programmes and schemes of the govt.,there is always a conflict between one objective and the other,therefore it is necessary to proceed in terms of priorities between these objectives, as first things must come first. Programmes based on well reasoned priorities are invaluable in developing countries as they cannot afford to waste time,people or material. Stages of a implementation plan, on the basis of priority are decided to propose the allocation of resources for the due completion of each stage.Planning Commission concerns itself with the building of a long-term strategic vision of the future and decide on priorities of nation.

Examples of priorities in Plans - The reason for giving priority to agriculture and increased wheat production in the first & third five year plan was for a larger goal,and that was of Industrial development which was very important for a modern world development and large scale employment opportunities. But, in order to provide raw materials for Industrial development,it was first necessary to make the people of the country sufficient in field of food production and also produce surplus which could then be provided for Industrial development. One can see that Industrial development then began and rose in later plans after these efforts.
The Third Five Year Plan of India stressed on agriculture and improvement in production of wheat,however, the Sino-Indian war of 1962 exposed the weak economy and thus focus shifted on priority basis to the Defence sector to meet with this exigency. Then again,the Indo-Pak war in 1965-66 caused severe drought situation and also inflation,thus shifting the priority of the Plan to price stabilisation.

These are just a few,there are many more examples like these in every Five Year Plan of India. FOr gist of all Five Year Plans refer http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five-Year_plans_of_India  &  for the recent one,that is the 12th Five Year Plan, refer http://12thplan.gov.in/ .

Thus,the overall underlying goal of every Plan is to mobilise resources of a country for increasing capital formation for increased public expenditure in order to fund rapid development. However, certain objectives in the implementation plan are given priority keeping in mind the immediate situation as well as the resources and funds available at that point in time.







PLANNING - IMPORTANCE:
Planning as an activity is based upon the application of various mathematical forecasting tools using which projections of future with some certainty may be possible. Planning helps in providing/identifying various stages of development which may essentially evolve in the attainment of some development goal.

Planning as an activity in regard to nations is seen of utmost significance as through it only nations plan for socio economic reconstruction and for strategic employment of resources for better attainment of objectives in the future.

Planning helps nations to recover from the acute problem of underdevelopment and also helps them to institute such structures and processes through which goals of future may become more achievable. Planning on one count has to address the short term goals and on the other has to prepare the foundation and mechanism for the reasons/factors for retarded/slow/lop-sided growth of the nation.
Planning helps nations identify disablements emerging in various sectors and helps in establishing the strategic means through which these disablements could be addressed.

Three dominant traits of Indian planning may be noted her:
i) It is highly centralised,
ii) It is bureaucratic,
iii) It builds upon its preceding plans.








MACHINERY OF PLANNING:
The National Planning Commission at the National level is the main planning agency.
Below the national level are a number of state planning board/planning departments.
Below the state level are the District planning committees have come up in a number of states formulating district level plans.

All are integrated. Though the state and District level planning machineries are not that strong but nevertheless have helped in spreading the consciousness of planning at the grass root levels.
Besides the above,some other agencies are also involved in the planning process. A few to mention are the IIFT(Indian Instt of Foreign Trade) for studying problems in increasing exports and reducing imports,DRDA(District Rural Development Agency) to look after the development activities at district level,etc.







PLANNING COMMISSION - ROLE, COMPOSITION AND FUNCTIONS:
The Planning Commission was set up through a resolution of the government of India in 1950 in consequence to the Economic Programme Committee ,1948 recommended it in its report.
Post Independence it was realised that the provisions of the preamble,fundamental rights and DPSP could only be achieved through a planned effort.

The planning commission plays a Integrative role as it integrates and directs the govt. of India to move in Plan direction. It also plays a co-ordinating role between the Centre and the State. It also plays a Mediating and Facilitating role as it divides and allocates resources to State and Centre for Plan implementation. It plays a pivotal role in change and updating of Systems to be efficient in carrying out Planning. And last but not the least, it Plays the role of an Information disseminator as it regularly provides best practices in the field to the central and state governments in carrying out Plan Implementation.

The Planning Commission is a permanent,autonomous,advisory and expert body. The Prime Minister is its Chairman and the Finance Minister,Minister of Agriculture,Minister Of Energy,Minister Of Industry,Minister of HRD,Minister of Law and Justice and Water resources,Minister of Environment and forests,Minister of State of Planning are its Minister members. The other six full-time members are experts of various fields like Economics, Industry, Science and General Administration.

The Deputy Chairman of the Planning Commission who is generally a distinguished academician/economist/civil servant or a politician is given equal status and rank of a Cabinet Minister. The Planning Commission is also called the super cabinet at times due to this very same reason.

The main objective of the Planning Commission is not executive responsibility but to assess the resources and need of the economy and then to formulate the developmental plans in consultation with ministries of govt. of India and the state govts. It also has the responsibility of suggesting priorities of development plans. In recent times it has also gathered itself to certain administrative matters and functions of a purely executive nature as well.

The National Development gives the final approval to the plans and execution of the plan lies with the Union and state governments.

The functions of the Planning Commission are:

1. To make an assessment of the material, capital and human resources of the country, including technical personnel, and investigate the possibilities of augmenting those resources which are found to be deficient in relation to the nation's requirement.
2. To formulate a plan for the most effective and balanced utilisation of country's resources.
3. To define the stages, on the basis of priority, in which the plan should be carried out and propose the allocation of resources for the due completion of each stage.
4. To indicate the factors that tend to retard economic development.
5. To determine the conditions which need to be established for the successful execution of the plan within the incumbent socio-political situation of the country.
6. To determine the nature of the machinery required for securing the successful implementation of each stage of the plan in all its aspects.
7. To appraise from time to time the progress achieved in the execution of each stage of the plan and also recommend the adjustments of policy and measures which are deemed important vis-a-vis a successful implementation of the plan.
8. To make necessary recommendations from time to time regarding those things which are deemed necessary for facilitating the execution of these functions. Such recommendations can be related to the prevailing economic conditions, current policies, measures or development programmes. They can even be given out in response to some specific problems referred to the commission by the central or the state governments.

The Planning Commission functions through several divisions and sections,each headed by a senior officer,usually designated as Advisor or Chief or Consultant or Joint Secy or Joint Advisor. The full time members assume day to day responsibility of these divisions and sections and tenders advice jointly on all important matters.

The Internal Structure of the Planning Commission consists of :
i) General Administrative branches -  Responsible for house keeping functions.
ii) General Divisions - Responsible for providing an integrated approach paper in regards to certain areas of economy.
iii) Specialised Subject Division - Responsible for preparing a detailed analysis in regards to the specific area for which they exist.

Programme advisors(senior cadres of IAS) assuming the status of Addtl Secy or Spl secy of GOI in the Planning Commission help in establishing a link between the Planning Commission and the state governments.

The Programme Evaluation Organisation keeps close touch with agencies involved in the process of implementation at the central and state level to see if the objectives of the Plan are being achieved as specified or not and aiding and advising them on technicalities as well as imparting training to the personnel.








 NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT COUNCIL - ROLE, COMPOSITION AND FUNCTIONS:
 The National Development Council was established in 1952 through a resolution of the Cabinet/Govt. Of India on the recommendations of the Planning Commission in its first five year plan.  The NDC is seen as the prime body for approving plans formulated by the Planning Commission. It was established with the objective of attaining cooperation as well as avoiding conflicts from the side of the state govt as well as incorporating their views and needs in order to gain equality.

NDC comprises of all Chief Ministers as its members with the Prime Minister as the head of the NDC. It also consists of all Union Cabinet Ministers and administrators/Chief Ministers of union Territories.

Secy to the Planning Commission acts as a Member Secy to the NDC. 

 Objectives of NDC:
 1.to strengthen and mobilize the effort and resources of the nation in support of the Plan
 2.to promote common economic policies in all vital spheres and
 3.to ensure the balanced and rapid development of all parts of the country.

Functions of NDC:
 1.to prescribe guidelines for the formulation of the National Plan, including the assessment of resources for the Plan;
 2.to consider the National Plan as formulated by the Planning Commission;
 3.to consider important questions of social and economic policy affecting national development; and
 4.to review the working of the Plan from time to time and to recommend such measures as are necessary for achieving the aims and targets set out in the National Plan.
5. To make an assessment of resources required for implementing the plan and to suggest measures to augment them.
6. To ensure balanced and rapid development in all parts of the country.

Issues with the NDC are that there are irregular meetings held. And the meeting are mostly taken up in discussing and avenging political grievances. Central govt. not accepting of any change/modification by state govt.s to the national plans. The State govts have only one representative that is the Chief Minister and the Planning Commission is represented by the Pm as well as quite a handful of Ministers along with technical experts that the states do not have there at that time. Therefore,there is a need for revitalising the NDCC process.









DISADVANTAGES AND ISSUES WITH CENTRALISED PLANNING:
It is non flexible at most times. Non participatory. Non articulation of felt needs and real demands/ Feeling of being imposed upon by the states. Top down approach. Assumes a role of a parallel government.

In order to address these issues the Indian economy is gradually moving from a highly centralised planning system towards the process of Indicative Planning in the light of the 1991 economic reforms,which will be discussed below.








INDICATIVE PLANNING:
Indicative Planning is a process where where the Planning Commission concerns itself with the building of a long term strategic vision of the future and decides on priorities of the nation. It is an arrangement where central planning institutions are seen providing an indicative framework to carry out programmes/activities at the regional levels where sufficient  discretion is possible at the regional levels.  This process of Planning is a great advocate of decentralisation.

Thus, the central govt provides the overall framework of the Plan and the direction to move for development to the states and districts, and the respective State and District Planning Boards carry out at their levels as per their needs. This process also gives a free play to PSUs and pvt players to carry out their activities regarding the same.





SIGNIFICANCE OF PLANNING IN THE LPG ERA:
Yes, Planning is very much important in the current era. As LPG(Liberalisation,Privatisation & Globalisation) ensures freedom of market forces which can only take care of demand and supply,it is through planning that the socio-economic objectives can be obtained by taking care of need and supply. State intervention is still very much required to be a neutral referee,as one can gauge from the reasons of the recent recession in 2008. It has shifted its role from a active player to that of a facilitator,regulator,guide and protector of development processes and citizens' rights in the country.





PROCESS OF PLAN FORMULATION AT UNION & STATE LEVELS:
i) At the Union level - Planning Commission receives inputs from Central/Union Council Of Ministers on one side and from Programme advisors(detailed above) who bring in views of the States as well as of Civil Society Institutions. All of these are then taken into account and processed to develop a Plan Approach Paper and that is then discussed upon and improved and eventually this paper is passed by the Planning Commission's members and presented to the NDC for its review,recommendations and approval so that this paper can be further presented to both houses of Parliament for the final stamp of approval and legally turn into a Five year Plan blueprint.  The Estimates Committee estimates the resources needed for these plans. The states are asked to declare their resources and then the financial resources steering committee of Planning Commission recommend fund allocation. The funds are then given out from the Finance Ministry once approved by the Parliament. Once this is accomplished then this is passed on to the State and District level Planning Boards to implement at their level the guidelines of this plan along with the mandate of the NDC.



ii) At the states level - The Planning dept. of the states receive inputs from various state plan committees,Civil society institutions,Directorates and departments of the respective state which are mostly technical in nature,and from all district level agencies. These inputs are then processed at the Planning dept. which are then sent to the Planning Commission for its review and incorporation into the Central 5 year plan. Then the whole above mentioned process takes place as stated in the " Plan formulation process at Union level". After that, once the Central 5 year plan guidelines as well as the NDC mandate is passed on to them along with the resources allocated to them,then the plan approach paper at the state level is finalised again at the State Planning dept in definite terms of objectives and how to achieve them at their state/regional level keeping in mind the needs of the state as reported by the inputs provided to them originally. This Plan Approach paper is then passed by the state planning dept., in order to move to the next step which is to send it for the review,recommendation and approval of the Chief Minister and the state planning Board that consists of many of that respective state's cabinet ministers. Once that is achieved,it is then presented to the respective state legislature for the final approval after which it is legally implementable as a 5 year plan at the state level.



CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENTS IN 1990 FOR SETTING UP OF "INTER - STATE COUNCIL" BASED ON SARKARIA COMMISSION RECOMMENDATIONS FOR BETTER CENTRE STATE CONFLICT RESOLUTION:
In light of the scathing remarks labeled upon the Planning Commision by various Committees like the Santhanam Committee,etc which accused the Planning Commission of arm twisting the State Governments in Plan meetings in the NDC since majority of the members there comprise of the Centre and its allies, and most importantly the extra - constitutional identity of the Planning Commission, the Sarkaria Commission was set upto review the working of the existing arrangements between the Union and the States in the changed socio-economic scenario.

The Government constituted a Commission under the chairmanship of Justice Rajinder Singh Sarkaria with Shri B. Sivaraman and Dr. S.R. Sen as its members to examine and review the working of the existing arrangements between the Union and States in regard to powers, functions and responsibilities in all spheres and recommend such changes or other measures as may be appropriate.
One of the important recommendations of Sarkaria Commission was for establishing a permanent Inter-State Council as an independent national forum for consultation with a mandate well defined in accordance with Article 263 of the Constitution of India. Pursuant to the recommendation, The Inter-State-Council was set up under Article 263 of the Constitution of India vide Presidential Order dated 28.5.1990 as a Constitutional Body ( refer - en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inter_State_Council ).
The Commission also recommended making the NDC a Constitutional Body so that it functions more autonomously without fear or favour.

Inter State Council enquires into and advises upon disputes which may have arisen between states and in addition it may also investigate and discuss subjects of common interest between the union and states or between two or more states in order to facilitate coordination of policy and action. They are setup by the President and its examples are - Central Council of Health,Central Council of Local Self Government,Council of sales tax,etc.

Inter state water disputes act,1956 was enacted by the Parliament setting up tribunals for adjudication of water disputes between union and a state or two or more states and between one state and another or two others,etc.

Other devices in practice to secure union-state cooperation and conflict resolution also exist which are extra constitutional devices like Governors Conference headed by the President ,Chief Ministers conference,Conference of IGPs of states,Planning Commission and NDC discussions on five year plans,etc where representatives of all states get together and discuss various issues within themselves and the Union for a consensus.

However, it is sad to note that in the last 22 years, only 10 meetings have been held of the ISC,which speaks volumes on the lack of will of the Centre and political vested interests to fully implement and utilise this valuable Constitutional body/forum and instead keep relying and depending on extra Constitutional structures to ensure cooperative federalism. To read more of the sad state of affairs of the abovementioned - http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/opinion/columns/cracks-in-our-federal-setup/article4273184.ece





CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENTS (1992) AND DECENTRALIZED PLANNING FOR ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIAL JUSTICE:
The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendment Acts,1992 provides for democratic decentralisation and is hailed as a revolutionary step and one of the most important political innovations in Independent India. It gave a face to Gandhian Directive principles of State policy's Article 40 that looks to promote a system of decentralized planning for local socio-economic development that would be relevant,thus, leading to the achievement of the larger goal,which is, Social justice.
The Panchayati Raj Act and the Municipalities Act respectively are the 73rd and 74th Constitutional amendment act of 1992. They provide for a system of local self govt. wherein the people take upon themselves the responsibility of Planning,provisions of community and welfare services,etc. and socio-economic and cultural Development through rural development plans and programmes.
The Panchayati Raj institutions involves a three tier structure of democratic instruction at district,block and village levels,viz. zilla parishad(District level), panchayat samithi(block level), and village panchayat(basic level) respectively.
This Act provides for article 234 in the Constitution and a District Planning Committee under 234 G as well as 29 subjects for jurisdiction placed under the 11th schedule of the Indian Constitution. The 74th Amendment act for Municipalities has article 243 and its sub parts for providing Panchayat as well as Municipal Planning Committees and 18 items under the 12th schedule of the Indian Constitution for their jurisdiction.
These institutions are to enjoy fiscal autonomy and directions to the State Finance Commissions to provide funds to them. It also provides for the sources of revenues through taxes,etc.
Their rural plans are to be submitted to the District Planning Committee(in case of rural) & Metropolitan Planning Committee ( in case of urban area) which in turn submit it to the Planning Commission

However,one must also note that though this has been put on paper officially and also implemented in the right manner in many states,still there is a huge disparity and violation of the above provisions in many areas and continues to be heavily centralised.

This is so because as you have understood above regarding the plan formulation process in the states as well as centres, it is a top down approach where the plan is decided by the centre and passed on to the state and district planning committees for implementation following their guidelines. Apart from that,there are many subjects between the rural and urban bodies and the state regarding jurisdiction that are concurrent and overlapping thus leaving very few of them to the exclusive jurisdiction of the local bodies.

Finance provided by the centre as well as state to these bodies for plan implementation is also a total contradiction of financial autonomy granted to them as these funds come through the various offices of the state and district level officials and so there is undue delay at many a times for reasons unknown of funds transfers.

Also, training and skill upliftment of local bodies' representatives should be undertaken by the centre and states so that they gain the requisite expertise in effectively implementing plans.
Therefore,all these issues should be taken care of in order to make them truly local govt. democratic and decentralised institutions. Else, they will only be petrified prints on paper.



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The next article on this blog will cover:

State Government and Administration:
Union-State administrative, legislative and
financial relations; Role of the Finance
Commission; Governor; Chief Minister;
Council of Ministers; Chief Secretary; State
Secretariat; Directorates.

Union Government and Administration: Executive, Parliament, Judiciary - structure, functions, work processes; Recent trends; Intragovernmental relations; Cabinet Secretariat; Prime Minister’s Office; Central Secretariat; Ministries and Departments; Boards; Commissions; Attached offices; Field organizations.

We have already studied via previous articles of this blog viz. the developments,events and legislation that had taken place from the Vedic,Mauryan,Mughal rule right to the end of the British rule in India that led to the current and contemporary setup of the Indian State, Government as well as Administration in India.

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So, today we will discuss the modern and contemporary state of affairs regarding the same in India.





                                   ADMINISTRATIVE SETUP AND HIERARCHY IN INDIA:

                                                         









UNION GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION OF INDIA:
The Constitution of India provides for a federal structure,wherin the union and the states are independent in their functioning,however,at times in order to meet certain exigencies (like in an Emergency) in national interest, there are unique safeguards for it to assume a Unitary character(controlled/directed by the Union/Centre). This is a feature unique to the Indian Constitution,that is why it is called as a combination of federal and unitary features or quasi - federal. One can note this in the Constitution in its very first article,where it pronounces India as a union of states and article 3 specifies the supremacy of the Union Parliament where it can alter the states viz. their boundaries and their names,etc. in national interest,also unified judicial system,integrated Election machinery,Accounts and audit,and single citizenship,etc.

So the states do have a federal character in regards to the State list and the subjects listed in them under the constitution  and decision making on the same is instituted in their level which is democratic decentralisation and also stabilises these state machineries,however,under certain circumstances the unitary character takes over.

Under the Indian Constitution the Union list of subjects contains 97 areas/subjects on which the Union/Central/Federal Govt. possesses sole decision making powers. And the executive powers for administering the above mentioned subjects have been vested in the President under the Constitution to be directly exercised through him or through his subordinate officers in accordance with the Constitution. The President is a part of Parliament as no Bill can become an Act/Law unless he assents to it. An important note to be made here is that even though all administration in the country are carried out in his name yet he is just a nominal head and not the real ruler.The reason being for this is that the Constitution provides for a Parliamentary form of govt. where the Council of Ministers aiding and advising the President(head of State) are the real rulers of the State.

Administrative framework of the Union govt. under the Indian Constitution advocates the tenets of decentralisation as well as autonomy and initiative being vested in states and local units of govt. simultaneously accepting central planning and direction from the Centre/union.
Governmental leadership's objective is State Welfare as well as integration and participation of the people in administration and policies by allowing officials to bring in innovations and democratic values into administration and its practices and functions.

The administrative features and details of Indian Administration is a modified version of the Govt. Of India Act 1935 as the people of India were used to it and were content with its administration provisions.
Refer to these important acts - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_India_Act  & http://publicadministrationtheone.blogspot.in/2012/08/accountability-and-control-concepts-of.html for details on Legislative,Executive and Judicial control over Indian Administration.


Below is detailed as to through which various posts/Offices and its officials,organisations and institutions the Union Governance as well as Administration is carried out.






EXECUTIVE - 1) THE PRESIDENT OF INDIA & HIS ADMINISTRATIVE FUNCTIONS:
Go through this article - http://ibnlive.in.com/news/demystified-how-the-president-of-india-is-elected/268962-53.html

Apart from the above mentioned administrative functions of the President,he also summons,prorogues,addresses,sends messages to Parliament and dissolves the Lok Sabha,promulgates ordinances when Parliament is not in session,makes recommendations for financial and money bills and gives assents to transform bills in to Acts and makes certain appointments at the Union level executives,Chief Justice Of India and Union Public Service Commission members and Chairman as well as removal is done under his warrant and seal. He also grants pardon,reprieves,respites,remits or suspends sentences in certain cases.
All decisions taken by the ministries and Departments are to be signed by him in order to be passed.
He is the supreme commander of the Armed Forces.
He upholds the democratic,republic and federalist value of the Constitution through his election process where states participate as well along with the union parliament. So, he is indirectly elected by the people through their elected representatives.
He nominates 12 members to the Rajya Sabha from amongst persons who have special knowledge or practical experience in respect of such matters as literature, science, art and social service. By adopting the principle of nomination in Rajya Sabha, the Constitution has ensure that the nation must
also receive services of the most distinguished persons of the country who have earned distinction in their field of activity, many of whom may not like to face the rough and tumble of the election. By nominating them to Rajya Sabha, the state not only recognises their merit and confers honour on them, but also enables them to enrich the debates by their expertise and knowledge that they
have in different areas.
And the President also nominates 2 members of the Anglo Indian community in the Lok Sabha if he feels that they do not have adequate representation there.

A President can be removed from office through an impeachment process on the grounds of violation of Constitution with 14 days prior notice of such action. But it has not been specified as to what may be considered as a violation of the Constitution.
Also refer to - http://presidentofindia.nic.in/  &  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India

Recent trends of Presidents taking active part and exercising their powers viz. issuing ordinance as well as others is a good move in the right direction so that the President also holds his own and keeps the political executive accountable and to work for the ultimate betterment of the people.







2) VICE PRESIDENT OF INDIA:
The Vice President is the next in rank of executive authority after the President. He is elected by both houses of parliament and not the states by proportional representation through single transferable vote. His term is also as the President's , that is 5 years. He serves as the ex officio (because of a person's position in a formal group) Chairman of the Rajya Sabha. He carries out duties of the President in his absence and also acts as  an ambassador of the country at times.
VP can be removed under no specified grounds by a resolution passed by an absolute majority of the Rajya Sabha and agreed to by the simple majority of the lower house or Lok Sabha with 14 days notice to the VP. These are his administrative functions.
Refer to - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vice_President_of_India







3) UNION COUNCIL OF MINISTERS & THE PRIME MINISTER OF INDIA & THEIR ADMINISTRATIVE FUNCTIONS :
The Union Council Of Ministers is an important organ of the Executive. It is responsible for preparing and introducing bills in Parliament,to aid and advise the President in the exercise of his functions and to determine policy and administer them and to implement the decisions adopted by the Parliament. This Union Council Of Ministers carry out their functions with the help of government officials and bureaucrats.

 The Union Council Of Ministers consists of :
i) Union Cabinet Ministers (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_India). Refer - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Ministers,_India.
Details of this classification is detailed below in this article.

ii) Ministers of State ( Independent charge) & Ministers of State (under a Union minister) - A Minister of State is a junior Minister in the Union Council of Ministers in the Federal or Central Government who may assist a Union Cabinet minister or have independent charge of a ministry. Here "State" in the desgination title above refers to Union/Centre govt. and should not be mistaken for the other term/definition of state (like Gujrat,Delhi,etc.). It means that this Minister is a Minister/representative of the Central/Union govt. assisting the Union Cabinet Ministers in their duties under their Ministry/Dept, and is not part of any state region. Government of a state (like Assam,Bihar,etc). is a different configuration all together. An illustration is - There is a Minister of Defence who is a Union Cabinet Minister and under him there will be a Minister Of State for Defence. This sub-classification under the same Ministry/Dept. has been done for the sole purpose of a better administration and supervision of that Ministry/Dept.
The Minister Of State having Independent charge of a Ministry under the Union/Central govt.  does not assist any Union Cabinet Minister and handles his/her Ministry / dept. independently and reports directly to the Prime Minister on the same,examples of such independent union Ministers of State are - Ministry Of Women & Child Development,Ministry Of Mines,etc.
Refer  for list - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Ministers,_India

iii) Deputy Ministers : To assist the Ministers Of State(both types) in the administration of their functions
who are appointed by the president on the advice of the Prime Minister.
It is headed by the Prime Minister who need not necessarily be a member of any House of Parliament when appointed by the President but must secure a seat in either house within six months of the date of entering office.It is the prime duty of the Union COM to aid and advise the President in exercise of his functions. The Council is directly accountable to the Lok Sabha and is individually responsible to the President for the functioning of their ministry/dept. The Prime Minister as the head and leader of COM has the duty of directing,coordinating and conveying all decisions of the Council of ministers relating to the policy making,implementation and administration of the affairs of the Union and all information pertaining to it.
If there is a policy failure or lapse on the part of the government, all the members of the council are jointly responsible. If the budget or any such Bill proposed by the Union cabinet is rejected by the parliament then under the principle of collective responsibility the whole council of Ministers and PM have to resign thus dissolving the whole Union Cabinet leading to fresh elections within 6 months.If a vote of no confidence is passed against the government, then all the ministers headed by the Prime Minister have to resign.

Also refer to - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Ministers,_India & http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_India & http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_India






4) COMPTROLLER AND AUDITOR GENERAL OF INDIA (CAG) & HIS ADMINISTRATIVE FUNCTIONS:

Refer to previous post under topic of Audit and CAG- http://publicadministrationtheone.blogspot.in/2012/08/financial-administration-monetary-and.html






5) ELECTION COMMISSION OF INDIA & ITS ADMINISTRATIVE FUNCTIONS:
Under Article 324 of the Indian Constitution there is a provision based on the concept of Universal Adult Franchise for the appointing of an autonomous and constitutional body called the Election Commission for the administration of political process in the country by conducting and ensuring free and fair elections of Central and State legislatures as well as the elections of the President and Vice President.
This body comprises of a Chief Election COmmissioner and two Election COmmissioners who are of equal status and power as the former. They take decisions on the basis of a moajority consensus and not being directed by the Chief Election Commissioner. They are appointed by the President for a term of 6 years or till the age of 65 years,whatever comes first. To protect their autonomy and impartiality,they can only be removed by the President in the same manner and grounds of a judge of the Supreme Court. Other Election Commissioners cannot be removed unless a recommendation is given by the Chief Election Commissioner.
Under the Election Commission of India there are State Election Commissions in every state that aid and assist the Election Commission in matters of state and local govt. elections.
Its main functions are :
(i) The preparation of electoral rolls before each general election and registration of all
eligible voters.
(ii) The delimitation of constituencies.
(iii) The recognition of various political parties and allotment of election symbols to these
parties.
(iv) Preparation of code of conduct for the political parties.
(v) Keeping voters list up-to-date at all times.
(vi) The preparation of roster for central broad-casts and telecasts by various political parties,
etc.
(vii) The conduct of polls.
(viii) The Election Commissioner has not only the power of holding elections but also to
cancel it and order repoll of it if rigged. It is also the responsibility of the Election
Commission to hold by-elections.
(ix) To notify the dates and schedules of elections so that nomination papers are filled and
properly scrutinised before the elections.
(x) To request the President of India or the Governors of the States for requisitioning as
much staff as necessary for conducting elections.
(xi) Under the Peoples Representation Act, the Election Commission also has the power to disqualify a candidature.

It has advisory jurisdiction in matters of post election,disqualification of sitting members of Parliament and State legislatures. It has taken many steps in the recent times to ensure total rationality in conducting elections like providing electors with photo identity cards,restriction on opinion/exit polls,computerisation of electoral rolls,checking criminalisation of politics,ensuring strict compliance with model code of conduct during elections by election officials as well as candidates and parties,simplifying procedure for maintaining accounts and filing of candidates,etc.

The decisions of the Election Commission can be challenged by appropriate petitions in the High Court and Supreme Court. Election petitions can be filed before the High Court, in respect of elections to the Parliament and State Legislatures. In respect of elections for the offices of the President and Vice President, such petitions can only be filed before the Supreme Court.






6) FINANCE COMMISSION & ITS ADMINISTRATIVE FUNCTIONS:
Under article 280 of the Indian Constitution,the finance Commission is an autonomous and constitutional body. It is appointed every 5 years and consists of a Chairman and four other members.
Functions of the Finance Commission can be explicitly stated as:

1. Distribution of net proceeds of taxes between Centre and the States, to be divided as per their respective contributions to the taxes.
2. Determine factors governing Grants-in Aid to the states and the magnitude of the same.
3. Work with the State Finance Commissions and suggest measures to augment the Consolidated Fund of the States so as to provide additional resources to Panchayats and Municipalities in the state.

Please refer - http://fincomindia.nic.in/ShowContent.aspx?uid1=2&uid2=1&uid3=0&uid4=0  &   http://fincomindia.nic.in/ShowContent.aspx?uid1=2&uid2=2&uid3=0&uid4=0

It has been off late being argued that the Planning Commission has been usurping the powers of the Finance Commission and has only reduced it to a advisory and recommendation body regarding funds and revenue sharing.
Planning Commission is to be discussed in the next article of this blog.






PARLIAMENT & ITS FUNCTIONS:
Parliament is the supreme legislative body of India. It presides over bills and passes them as Acts for the benefit of the country and its people as well as keeps a check on the Executive in every possible way. No funds can be taken out of the Consolidated Fund Of India without its permission. So,basically it is of immense importance as it is the one that sets the whole administrative and executive machinery into motion.
The Indian Parliament comprises of the President and the two Houses-Lok Sabha (House of the People) and Rajya Sabha (Council of States). The President has the power to summon and prorogue either House of Parliament or to dissolve Lok Sabha.
The same structure of legislation follows in the states with the exception that the President's representative is the Governor and some states have a unicameral legislature with the upper house that is the Vidhan Parishad as optional. The Chief minister and his state council of ministers and administrators at the State level are akin to the PM and his council at the Union level.

The Indian Constitution provides for a Parliamentary form of government. Refer - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_India
The Constitution of India came into force on January 26, 1950. The first general elections under the new Constitution were held during the year 1951-52 and the first elected Parliament came into being in April, 1952, the Second Lok Sabha in April, 1957, the Third Lok Sabha in April, 1962, the Fourth Lok Sabha in March, 1967, the Fifth Lok Sabha in March, 1971, the Sixth Lok Sabha in March, 1977, the Seventh Lok Sabha in January, 1980, the Eighth Lok Sabha in December, 1984, the Ninth Lok Sabha in December, 1989, the Tenth Lok Sabha in June, 1991, the Eleventh Lok Sabha in May, 1996, the Twelfth Lok Sabha in March, 1998, Thirteenth Lok Sabha in October, 1999, Fourteenth Lok Sabha in May, 2004 and Fifteenth Lok Sabha in April, 2009.

The recent trends of deteriorating standards of debates and attendance of Parliamentarians, stalling of parliament,coalition govt. and consequent instability in policy making,corruption as well as corporate lobbying for vested interests and criminalisation of politics has led to a very sad state of Indian parliament. However, active media and judicial activism and review along with civil society efforts still give a lot of hope. Along with that also the prospective bills on cleaning out unwanted elements from entering politics that are very certain to see the light of day are encouraging reports. Apart from this, citizens of the country should take the responsibility to educate themselves on policy matters as well as their rights and legal recourse that will help them take right decisions during elections as well as while holding the govt. and administration responsible for wrongdoings,commissions as well as omissions on their part. Also,the recent trends of weak Prime Ministers leading to unchecked and massive corruption has left a very bad taste in the mouth and its high time that some effective measures are taken to combat it like an effective Lokpal at the Centre and Lokayuktas in states.







JUDICIARY & JUDICIAL ADMINISTRATION:
 Part IV of the Indian Constitution deals with the topic of separation of Judiciary from Executive and Legislature. The Constitution of India under article 124  provides for the establishment of a Supreme Court and an Independent Judiciary that is non partisan and promotes equality and liberty. It is integrated and unified consisting of Supreme Court(apex body),High Courts(Head of state's Judicial Administration) and District Courts(Head of District's Judicial Administration controlled by a district and sessions judge) and is focused on integrating the country. It provides that there shall be a Supreme Court whose role is that of a centralised Court,protector and interpreter of the Constitution and highest court of appeal,consisting of CJI and 30 other judges (in the beginning it was 7,then 52,then 25 and now in 2008 with an Amendment act has come to 30). The seat of the Supreme Court shall be in Delhi or at any such other place where CJI with the President's approval may prescribe ( article 130).
The bottommost or grass root levels at villages are the Nyaya Panchayats and then it goes right upto the Supreme Court via the  High Courts and District Courts.
The working of the High Court mainly, of a state, is to get the appeals from subordinate courts and the writ petitions related to the Article No. 226 of the Indian Constitution. Also the writ Jurisdiction serves as the original jurisdiction for the High Court. Each High Court of individual state has its different pre-defined territorial jurisdiction.
From the judiciary point of view, each state of India is divided clearly into different judicial districts with District and Sessions Judge. Such a designated judge is regarded as the District Judge designate, when presiding over civil cases, and as Sessions Judge while considering the criminal cases. The highest authorised judicial under a Judge of the High Court is the district and sessions judge. There are different courts dealing with civil jurisdiction with different names in various states under him in the hierarchy.
Below the District and sessions court judges there are courts of civil jurisdiction,known in different states as Munsifs,Sub-judges,civil judges,etc. In the same way at the district level,criminal judiciary comprises of  the Chief Judicial Magistrate and First and Second Class Magistrates. High courts are principal courts of original jurisdiction(where an aggrieved can straightaway approach the High Court without going through lower courts) in the state for issuing writs to protect fundamental rights.
The CJI is appointed by the president on the advice of the Council Of Ministers. And the President appoints Supreme Court and High Court judges on consultation with the CJI and nomination of judges by the Political executive from among legal experts and practitioners is more acceptable than any other process till date.
The Supreme Court has powers of Original Jurisdiction,Appellate jurisdiction as well as Advisory jurisdiction on any matter referred to it by the President for its consultation. For details -
http://www.supremecourtofindia.nic.in/jurisdiction.htm &
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_India & http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:High_Courts_of_India & http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/District_Courts_of_India
To protect the independence and autonomy of the Judges the removal process has been made very effective and not easily attainable. The only ground on which a Judge of the Supreme Court or High Court can be removed is proved misbehavior or incapacity through an impeachment process that is,a judge can only be removed by an order of the President passed after an address in each House of Parliament.Such address must be supported by a majority of the total membership of that House and by a majority of not less than two-third of the members present and voting. It must be presented to the President in the same Session.
The recent trend of Public interest litigation movement in India has brought in a whirlwind and watershed dimension to the ambit of the Judiciary and its service to people and promote socio economic justice and equality at a bigger platform. NGOs have played a big part in bringing a lot of cases to light. Refer - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public-interest_litigation_(India)

In today's times of massive corruption, judicial activism as well as judicial review and PILs as well as suo motu powers of Judiciary are tools of great importance for taking action to make State institutions and administrative action abide by the tenets of the Indian Constitution and declare null and void the actions and laws passed by legislature that are against the Constitutional tenets.






ATTORNEY GENERAL OF INDIA & HIS FUNCTIONS:
He/She is the chief legal advisor to the Indian Govt. and its primary lawyer in the Supreme Court of India. He should be qualified to become a judge of the Supreme Court. He is appointed by the President under Article 76(1) of the Indian Constitution and holds office during the president's pleasure. He does not derive any fixed salary but only a consultation fee. However since he is appointed by the political party in power therefore it is likely for him to be biased. However, it being a Constitutional post,he/she is open for public scrutiny.







 INTRAGOVERNMENTAL / INTERGOVERNMENTAL RELATIONS:
Intra governmental/Intergovernmental relations refer to effective relations within as well as among/between various agencies/departments of the government in order to achieve completion of entire work scheme. The contemporary complexities require the government to operate on the principle of specialisation. Govt. in order to be more effective,efficient and focused go for the establishment of specialised and non specialised organisations. The Govt. operates with various departments having their own specific domains.
In such a scenario there shall always be a possibility that while making decisions in their domains they may act in a conflicting manner within each other. So there has been a recommendation to create a tandem so that they work in  unity to achieve the task with their specialisations being used effectively for the same. So there has been recommendations of a committee formation or formal rules and regulations to be prescribed for achieving a significant amount of necessary coherence within various depts and agencies working together.
The Gorwala committee has recommended that the Ministry of Finance give up its rigidisctic control over administrative ministries and act as a colleague ministry instead for helping and facilitating work.
The first Administrative Reforms Commission recommended the appointment of a Integrated Financial Advsor who would act as a link between Ministry of Finance and various Administrative Ministries so that proposals of the latter are effectively and quickly disposed off by the former.
Intra governmental relations are also managed through various committees of Secretaries appointed by the Union Cabinet secretary from time to time. The current arrangement of the Group Of Ministers(Inter related and interdependent ministries'/departments ministers forum for gaining consensus on decisions and taking swift action) and Empowered Group of ministers(An arrangement where a GOM is seen  working with some sort of delegated powers from the Union cabinet to decide policy matters independently at their respective ministerial/departmental level only) could also be seen as a useful mechanism for achieving necessary coordination in the functioning of inter dependant as well as standalone ministries.








UNION CABINET & UNION CABINET SECRETARIAT & ITS ADMINISTRATIVE FUNCTIONS:
Union Cabinet ( refer - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_India ) is an extra constitutional arrangement instituted within the Council of Ministers(COM) under the provisions of Business Rules Act. The Union Cabinet is the term used for a small group of important (Union cabinet rank) ministers and seniors of the COM who are exclusively responsible for giving overall policy framework to the country and decisions relating to the same and the Union Cabinet arrangement helps in collective decision making in the Union COM. The Union Cabinet portfolios include ones of extreme importance like Defence Minister,Home Minister,Foreign Affairs Minister,etc. The Union cabinet takes initiative in legislative matters and directs the Parliament on the same. The annual budget is prepared by the Union Cabinet.
This term has been used once under article 352 of the Indian Constitution but that too with no details.
The Union cabinet can issue directives to the State govts under certain circumstances and under state emergency it can virtually control the working of the latter as well.
Union Cabinet committees are formed so as to help in a detailed and descriptive analysis of the subjects that are functions of the Union  Cabinet and help in taking load of these matters from the Union Cabinet ministers. The officials appointed for this can be civil servants,people of distinguished experience in the subject matter,civil society and other central services officials,etc. These committees are appointed by the Prime minister on all such subjects that he feels important.
There are Standing union cabinet committees as well as Ad-Hoc Union Cabinet committees.
Some examples of Standing Union Cabinet Committee are : Union Cabinet Commission on Political affairs,Union Cabinet commission on economic affairs,Union Cabinet commission on appointments,Cabinet commission on Parliamentary affairs,infrastructure,security,etc.
The first Administrative Reforms Commission (ARC) had recommended that there should be an appointment of committees on all major subjects like Agriculture,Civil supplies,Science and Technology,etc. It also recommended for all Union Cabinet committees to be headed either by PM or deputy PM and recognition of these committees under the Allocation of Business rules Act. A recommendation was also given for setting up of committees for all those Secretaries whose Ministers were part of some Union Cabinet committee so that the secretarial work is performed simultaneously,smoothly and efficiently.


Secretariat means 'Secretary's Office' . The secretary being the principal adviser to the Minister needs to be equipped with an office to assist him in discharge of his functions.
The Union Cabinet Secretariat(Refer http://cabsec.nic.in/about_origin.php) is an organisation designed to provide Secretarial assistance to the Union Cabinet in carrying out its business. It has an important coordinating role in the process of decision making at the highest level. It submits the cases to the Union cabinet and its committees,prepares records of decisions taken and follow up action on their implementation. The political headship of the Union cabinet secretariat rests with the Prime Minister and the administrative head of the secretariat is the Union Cabinet Secretary,a very senior civil servant and plays a pivotal role and is the principal advisor to the Union cabinet, and there is the other secretariat staff.
The Union Cabinet Secretary is the Ex-Officio and Chairman of the Civil Services Board of the Republic of India; the chief of the Indian Administrative Service and head of all civil services and Central Secretariat officers under the rules of business of the Government of India.

Functions of the Union Cabinet Secretariat under the Union Cabinet secretary are:
i) To provide secretariat machinery for effectively transacting the routine business of the Union cabinet and cases which a Minister puts to the Union cabinet for decision or direction and cases of disagreements between ministers. Proposals to vary or reverse a decision previously taken by the Union Cabinet. Cases which the President or Prime Minister may require to put to the Union Cabinet. And, proposals to withdraw a prosecution instituted by the Govt. of India. Cases involving financial implications.
ii) To work as the secretariat for the various cabinet committees like proposals to appoint committees of enquiry and consideration of reports of such committees.
iii) To keep the President,the Vice President and all the Ministers in touch with the major activities of all the ministries of the govt. Cases involving legislation including ordinances issues,addresses and messages of the President to the Parliament. Proposals to summon or prorogue the Parliament or dissolve Lok Sabha. Cases involving foreign treaties and negotiation issues.
iv) To coordinate the important central-state conferences convened by the various central ministries.
v) To prepare agenda for the weekly meetings of the cabinet,keep record of the discussions in the cabinet,and the decisions taken therein,circulate memorandum on issues awaiting the cabinet's approval,circulate decisions of the cabinet to each ministry,prepare and submit monthly summaries on a large number of specified subjects to the cabinet.


The Union Cabinet Secretariat  is organised into two departments:
a) Dept. of Cabinet Affairs(permanent department) - Further divided into three wings - i) Main Civil Secretariat : Which provides all the secretarial assistance in securing coordination and timely action by the Ministers and departments of the Govt. of India in all matters in which theUnion  cabinet or the Prime Minister is interested.
ii) Organisation and Methods Division: It functions directly under the Prime Minister. Its main functions are to supply leadership and drive,and,build up a common fund of information by a cooperative effort,experience and competence in O&M work. For detailed functions of a O&M division refer to O&M topic in this post http://publicadministrationtheone.blogspot.in/2012/08/techniques-of-administrative.html
iii) Military Wing : It provides Secretariat services to the defence committee of the Cabinet,National Defence Council,Military Affairs Committee,Defence Minister's Committee,Defence Minister's Production Committee and a host of other committees dealing with Defence matters.
iii) Economic Wing: It is responsible for all the Secretarial work connected with the Economic committee of the Cabinet,Committee of Economic Secretaries and Supply Committee.

b) Department Of Statistics - An independent dept. created in April 1961,It is responsible for bringing coordination between various statistical organisations of the centre and states,and taking up initiatives for setting up agreed standards and norms,and for promoting in general the collection and compilation of statistics on scientific lines. It also provides administrative support to the central statistical organisation,national sample survey and Indian Statistical institute,the first two are attached offices of the Union cabinet secretariat and the third is a subordinate office of the Union cabinet secretariat).







 PRIME MINISTER'S OFFICE(PMO) & ITS ADMINISTRATIVE FUNCTION:
The PMO came into existence in Aug 1947. Earlier it was known as the Prime Minister's Secretariat but was renamed the PMO in 1977. It is listed as a department in itself under the govt. of India Allocation of Business rules 1961. It does not have any attached or subordinate office under it. It acts as a link between PM and his Ministers,President,Governors,Chief ministers and Foreign representatives. On the other side,which is the public side where it is concerned with the party matters,personal correspondences,complaints from the public,etc. It is for the PM to efficiently carry out his duty as the Chairman of the Planning Commission and help the PM in performance of his functions as the head of the government.

Principal functions of the PMO:
i) To deal with all references which under the rules of business have to come to the PM.
ii) To help the PM in discharge of his overall responsibilities as the Chief Executive like liaison with the Union Ministries and the State govts on matters which the PM may be interested.
iii) To help the PM in discharge of his responsibilities as the Chairman of Planning Commission.
iv) To deal with Public relations side of the PMO.
v) TO provide PM assistance in the examination of cases submitted to him for order under prescribed rules.







DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE PMO AND UNION CABINET SECRETARIAT:
PMO is a conventional office formed for convenience of administration and secretarial assistance to the PM whereas the Union Cabinet Secretariat is mentioned in the Constitution and is a legal body.
The PM is the head of the Union Cabinet and is a very sensitive post so he needs an exclusive extra filter and assistance in discharge of his varied and immensely important duties.
The Union Cabinet Secretariat on the other hand,though extremely pivotal is responsible for the overall administration and secretarial assistance to the whole Cabinet and various functions of the Ministries and departments.







CENTRAL SECRETARIAT & ITS ADMINISTRATIVE FUNCTIONS:
Refer to http://persmin.gov.in/DOPT_CSDivision_Index.asp

The Central Secretariat system in India is governed by Central Secretariat Service Rules, 1962, which has been issued under the powers of Article 309 of the Constitution, is based on two principles:
(1) The task of policy formulation needs to be separated from policy implementation.
(2) Maintaining Cadre of Officers operating on the tenure system is a prerequisite to the working of the Secretariat system.

The Central Secretariat is a policy making body of the government and is not, to undertake work of execution, unless necessitated by the lack of official agencies to perform certain tasks. Its head of hierarchy is the Union Cabinet Secretary whom it is responsible to and reports to. It's recruitment is done through the Staff Selection Commission's Combined Graduate Level Examination and its main task is to assist with secretarial support to all the ministries of the Centre and department heads and ensure smooth coordination between these ministries and departments and the Union Cabinet Secretariat as well as policy formulation in their respective ministries and departments.

The Central Secretariat normally performs the following functions:
(1) Assisting the minister in the discharge of his policy making and parliamentary functions.
(2) Framing legislation, rules and principles of procedure.
(3) Sectoral planning and programme formulation.
(4) (a) Budgeting and control of expenditure in respect of activities of the particular Ministry/department.
(b) Securing administrative and financial approval to operational programme and their subsequent modifications.
(c) Supervision and control over the execution of policies and programmes by the executive de­partments or semi-autonomous field agencies.
(d) Imitating steps to develop greater personnel and organizational competence both in the minis­try/department and its executive agencies.
(e) Assisting in increasing coordination at the Central level.
Structure of secretariat
The Central Secretariat is a collection of various ministries and departments secretaries. A ministry is responsible for the formulation of the policy of government within its sphere of responsibility as well as for the execution and review of that policy. A ministry, for the purpose of internal organisation, is divided into the following subgroups with an officer in charge of each of them.
The lowest of these units is the section in charge of a Section Officer and consists of a number of assistants, clerks, typists and peons. It deals with the work relating to the subject allotted to it. It is also referred as the office. Two sections constitute the branch which is under the charge of an under secretary, also known as the branch officer.
Two branches ordinarily form a division which is headed by a deputy secretary. When the volume of work in a ministry exceeds the manageable charge of a secretary, one or more wings are established with a joint secretary in charge of each wing.
At the top of the hierarchy comes the department which is headed by the secretary himself or in some case by an additional/special secretary. In some cases, a department may be as autonomous as a minister and equivalent to it in rank.






DIFFERENCE AND RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE UNION CABINET SECRETARIAT AND CENTRAL SECRETARIAT:
The Union Cabinet Secretariat ,as already mentioned in detail above, is for catering secretarial support and assistance exclusively to the Union Cabinet Ministers( refer http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_India) and their respective ministries and departments, and on behalf of the Union Cabinet, it has to coordinate with the rest of the Central Council Of Ministers' (i.e. Ministers Of State and Deputy Ministers') ministries and departments as well as their respective secretariats (which are collectively known as the Central Secretariat ) and direct the latter .

The Central Secretariat,which is a collective term used to refer to the collective secretariat offices of  all (excluding the Union Cabinet) remaining Central/Union Council Of Ministers' Ministries and Departments( i.e. the Ministers Of State & Deputy Ministers), provides secretarial services to the respective Ministry/Dept under Central Union Council Of Ministers(excluding the Union Cabinet ones). Apart from that,it has to coordinate with and report to the Cabinet Secretary(Cabinet Secretariat) who heads them and is at the top of the hierarchy of all Civil services and secretariat offices in order to ensure smooth transaction of the administrative business and rules of the Govt. Of India.

The Union Cabinet Secretary(head of the Union Cabinet Secretariat) is under direct charge of the Prime Minister since the PM is the head of the Union Cabinet,and, a Joint Secretary/Deputy Secretary (who comes under the ambit of the Central Secretariat by heading an individual secretariat of a Central Ministry/Department of the Union Council Of Ministers(excluding the Union Cabinet)) is under direct charge of that respective Central Ministry's Minister or Department's head of which he has been allocated to for providing his secretariat services.





MINISTRIES AND DEPARTMENTS,BOARDS AND COMMISSIONS:
This topic has been explained in a previous article on this blog. Please refer to http://publicadministrationtheone.blogspot.in/2012/07/organisations-theories-systems.html








ATTACHED OFFICES & THEIR ADMINISTRATIVE FUNCTIONS:
This comes under the Executive offices of the Govt. Of India along with Sub Ordinate Offices and Field organisations.
The Attached Offices refer to such agencies which have the responsibility of preparing the detailed plan for execution and which gives detailed directions to the sub ordinate office officers in regards to implementation. These offices are seen as repositories of knowledge for departments as well as sub ordinate agencies under it. It provides help to the departments for better analysis  of policy questions and also support Ministers in effective supervision over policy implementation. They help in review of functioning of sub ordinate offices and issue directions to them from time to time.






SUB - ORDINATE OFFICES & THEIR ADMINISTRATIVE FUNCTIONS:
These are the agencies responsible for the detailed execution of policies and decisions. These offices along with the Field establishments carry out policy execution. In departments where attached offices may not exist then these offices may have only the responsibility of planning and assistance functions.







FIELD ORGANISATIONS & ITS ADMINISTRATIVE FUNCTIONS:
It is the transaction and direct level organisation of policy implementation through physical effort. It is the basic level where physical implementation of policy takes place and is the first level interface between the people and administration.


The post ends here.

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The next article on this blog will cover:

Plans and Priorities:
Machinery of planning; Role, composition
and functions of the Planning Commission
and the National Development Council;
‘Indicative’ planning; Process of plan formulation
at Union and State levels; Constitutional
Amendments (1992) and decentralized
planning for economic development
and social justice.