Rural Development: Institutions and agencies since independence; Rural development programmes: foci and strategies; Decentralization and Panchayati Raj; 73rd Constitutional amendment.

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RURAL DEVELOPMENT:

" India lives in its villages " ~~~ Mahatma Gandhi

India is a country of villages with 70% of India's population live in rural areas as per Census of India's 2011 Provisional Population Totals of Rural-Urban Distribution. And,a large majority of those villages have very poor socio - economic conditions. Therefore, one can understand the importance of developing the rural areas. A slowdown in rural growth/development rate leads to a slow down the national growth rate as well even if the urban growth remain remains the same or increases, refer -
http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/70-indians-live-in-rural-areas-census/141379/on

The concerted efforts made to ameliorate the standard of living of the people of the villages is what is termed as Rural Development. And it is achieved through collective governmental and voluntary agencies' efforts in a country

Rural - Is an area where the people are engaged in primary industry in the sense that they produce things directly for the first time in cooperation with nature. People here live in villages,farms or isolated homes in remote areas. Agriculture is the main occupation of rural areas, others can be based on mining,oil and gas exploration,tourism, logging,etc.

RURAL DEVELOPMENT - HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE:
Villages and rural development have always been a part of India since time immemorial and they used to be self sufficient and self sustained resembling small republics and the respective rulers used to pitch in efforts to better them.

However, the present structure and style of functioning of local self governments is a British structure.  A beginning of local government is said to have been made in the year 1687 when for the first time, a local governing body - Municipal corporation was formed in Madras.

The British were concerned with finances/revenue collection/not political, and they knew that they had to have their hands into the local governments to reach the grass roots for top to bottom control. This led to severe exploitation of the rural areas by the British for their vested interests and a big blow to the economy. The recurrent famines in the later part of the 19th century and the recommendations of the Famine Commission Lord Mayo's resolution regarding local government was passed where the majority of officials were to be nominated by the British govt.

Lord Ripon's Resolution of 1882 or Local self government set the political tone of local government self government in India. The members were to be elected locally.
2/3rd members to be elected and chaired by non official of the British govt. This was seen with contempt and suspicion by the British bureaucracy and stiff resistance was put up by them.  This proposal was barely implemented and in late 19th century it was withdrawn. In the 1906 session of Congress this concept was brought up again for debate and some initiatives regarding the same were taken by the ruling govt. with the initiative of Lord Curzon, Provincial Department of
Agriculture with Agricultural College and Provincial Research Institute were
established. in 1906 the Indian Agricultural Service was constituted.This was further carried on to the Government of India Act of 1919 (Provision of Abject in Transferred List) and followed by the Government Act 1935 as well with some changes to suit the current scenario.

During the Independence struggle and infact throughout it, the national leaders advocated village communities. The Gandhian view prevailed and Panchayates became the foundation of the local self government. This principle is enshrined in Article 40 of the Indian Constitution under the Directive Principles Of State Policy that lays down that the State shall take steps to organise village Panchayats and endow them with such powers and authority as may be necessary to enable them to function as units of self - government.

A large number of rural development programmes were started by the Nationalists and Social reformers out of which some gradually diminished due to various technical/administrative reasons and some merged with the Govt. sponsored schemes later.

For details these pre - independence schemes refer to - http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/307/9/09_chapter2

All these programmes,irrespective of their failures/successes, were and are instrumental in setting the tone for rural welfare and development while framing the constitution, as well as a guiding force and examples for today's people and administrators of rural development.








INSTITUTIONS AND AGENCIES SINCE INDEPENDENCE:

The Ministry of Rural Development in India is the apex body for policy formulation,regulations and acts pertaining to the development of the rural sector,agriculture,handicrafts,fisheries,poultry,and dairy are the primary contributors to the rural business and economy.

 Refer to the Ministry's official website as well - http://rural.nic.in/sites/about-the-ministry.asp



There are two departments under the Ministry :
i) Department of Land Resources - The main objectives of the Department are:

• To increase productivity of rainfed/degraded land through the process of integrated watershed management.


• To support the States/UTs for implementation of National Land Records Modernization Programme (NLRMP)


• Land reforms and other related matters relating to land like administration of Land Acquisition Act, 1894, National Rehabilitation and Resettlement Policy of 2007 , Registration Act, 1908 etc.


• Bio-diesel Mission

Refer : http://dolr.nic.in/





ii) Department of Rural Development - Department of Rural Development in India is a department under the Ministry of Rural Development in the Central Government of India. The Department facilitates the provision of several services such as training and research facilities, human resource development, institutes of Panchayati Raj, and at the same time provides functional assistance to the DRDA and oversees the execution of projects and schemes.

Department of Rural Development also executes the schemes for wage employment and self-employment generation and, for providing small irrigation and housing facilities to the rural poor, provide economic aid to the poor in rural areas, basic minimum services. The department also develops roads in the rural areas.

The Department of Rural Development in India functions according to the formulated schemes.

Refer to the url - http://drd.nic.in/DRD/aboutus.asp





B) RURAL DEVELOPMENT DIVISION OF PLANNING COMMISSION

The function of the Rural Development Division is primarily to provide overall policy guidance in formulation of plans and programmes for Rural Development. This is the nodal Division for matters relating to poverty eradication, employment generation in rural areas, development of watershed & degraded land. The following specific activities are undertaken by Division;

1. To assist in formulation of rural development programmes to be included in Five Year Plans and Annual Plans and to make periodic assessment of progress achieved.
2. To analyse and prepare comments on the EFC Memoranda and Cabinet Notes paper for Group of Ministers pertaining to rural development programmes.
3. To maintain liaison with Ministry of Rural Development, National Institute of Rural Development (NIRD) and other allied organisations mainly and participating in the meetings.
4. To collect information from various Divisions of the Planning Commission, State Governments and also from the Central Ministries which are implementing various schemes related to rural development.
5. To organize Working Group meetings to finalise the Draft Five Year Plan proposals of the State Governments. This involves the preparation of background papers, discussions on inter-se plan priorities, critical examination of plan proposals in relation to plan objectives and approaches, preparation of Working Group Reports giving, inter-alia, outlays and physical targets.
6. Finalisation of the Five Year Plan outlays of the Ministry of Rural Development. Finalisation of Annual Plans of the Central Ministry of Rural Development and State Governments. This includes assessment of progress both in physical and financial terms, in relation to the approved targets and outlays, scheme-wise examination of proposals and reviewing targets and finalizing allocation for next Annual Plan.
7. To provide comments, materials etc. for Public representations, VIP references, Parliament Questions and Agenda items for the meetings of Consultative Committee/ Standing Committee for the Planning Commission pertaining to rural development sector are also attended to.

I) DISTRICT RURAL DEVELOPMENT AGENCIES (DRDA):
The above mentioned programmes of the Ministry Of Rural Development viz. anti - poverty,wage employment,rural housing,etc. are implemented and supervised by the District Rural Development Agencies ( DRDA) registered under the Societies Registration Act,1860,in the districts in the respective states. Substantial sums of rural development funds of government of India were transferred and routed through them under various Centrally Sponsored Schemes. From purely a financial resource from Rural Development point of view the DRDAs are extremely important institutions at the district level.


Both district level officials and public representative like M.P. , MLA ,Panchayat Samiti Chairpersons etc are the member of the Society. President, Zilla Parisad is the Ex-Officio Chairman of DRDA. All administrative and financial power are vested on Collector. The Project Director of the Agency looks after day to day administration. DRDA releases funds under various anti poverty programmes under Ministry of Rural Development,govt. of India and State Govt.   to various banks / executing agencies. It monitors the implementation of schemes, utilization of fund very closely. Following important schemes are implemented through DRDA.
There have been debates over merging of the DRDAs and the respective Panchayats as a part of decentralisation since DRDA is a centralised body and if true decentralisation is to be achieved then it should be given in charge of the respective local self governments. However, this complete merger has said to have happened in only two states that is Kerala and Karnataka who have a history of empowering the grassroots. Here, the DRDAs function as a unit of the Zilla Panchayat as cells of poverty alleviation / rural development schemes.

In 10 States/ UTs the DRDAs continue to be separate with the only linkage established with the ZPs is making the President of ZP the Chairperson of the DRDA. These are Bihar, Chattisgarh, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Punjab, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and Lakshadweep. In Gujarat the District Development Officer, who is also the Chief Executive Officer of the Zilla Panchayat, continues to chair the DRDA. In nine States/ UTs either the Collector continues as the Chair or some other arrangement has been made in this regard. These are Assam, Goa, Haryana, Jharkhand, Manipur, Tamil Nadu, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Daman & Diu, and Pondicherry. Andhra Pradesh has made the Zilla Panchayat President the Chair of the DRDA while designating the Collector as the Executive Chairperson. Similarly, in Maharashtra, while the President Zilla Panchayat is made the Chair of the DRDA, the Chief Executive Officer of the Zilla Panchayat is designated as the Executive Chairman of the Management Committee.

Refer - http://rural.nic.in/sites/downloads/programmes-schemes/DRDA_Guidelines.pdf


Table : Status of DRDAs in the States

Sl. No	State or U.T	Status of DRDA
1	Andhra Pradesh	DRDAs are separate; Collector is the Executive Chairperson though ZP President is made the Chairperson; large number and scope of parallel bodies across layers
2	Arunachal Pradesh	DRDAs are separate
3	Assam	DRDA separate; Collector is Chair and Ex Director; many parallel bodies
4	Bihar	DRDA separate; ZP Chairman is Chairman of DRDA; many other parallel bodies;
5	Chattisgarh	Reportedly DRDA merged; practically only the ZP Chairman is made the Chairman of DRDA;
6	Goa	DRDAs are separate;
7	Gujarat	DRDA separate; District Development Officer is the Chairman;
8	Haryana	DRDAs separate; Dy Commissioner/ Collector is the Chairman
9	Himachal Pradesh	DRDAs separate; ZP chairman is the chairman of DRDA; there are many other parallel bodies
10	Jammu & Kashmir	DRDAs separate; interestingly, the DRDA administration is being refurbished, which by itself could be a very positive step; Panchayat at district level is called the District Planning & Development Board – in a way combining the ZP and DPC
11	Jharkhand	DRDAs separate; Dy Commissioner is Chairperson of DRDA
12	Karnataka	DRDA merged with ZP since 1987; functions as a unit of ZP office with distinctiveness maintained only to facilitate transactions with the MoRD, New Delhi
13	Kerala	DRDAs merged with ZP, function as poverty alleviation cell of the ZP; some parallel bodies (Freshwater Fish Development Agency, Brackishwater Fish Development Agency) still function as per the directions of GoI. The MLA-LDF is also outside the purview and is sort of a parallel body.
14	Madhya Pradesh	DRDAs separate; ZP Chairman is the Chairman of DRDA Many parallel bodies, particularly those funded by multilateral and bilateral agencies and operated by the State Government as para-statal entities; DPIP andMPRLP are two examples.
15	Maharashtra	DRDA separate, ZP Chairman has a cosmetic position of being Chairman of Governing Body of DRDA with the CEO being the executive chairman of the Management Committee
16	Manipur	DRDA separate; Dy Commissioner as the Head; Many parallel bodies primarily associated with the Development programmes/ schemes of the Union Government.
17	Orissa	DRDA separate; PD – DRDA is designated as the Secretary-cum- Executive officer of ZP; ZP President is the Chair of DRDA
18	Punjab	DRDAs separate; ZP Chairman is made the Chairman and it is said that all Panchayats have access to the expertise of DRDA; there are other parallel bodies at district and village levels (Village Water and SanitationCommittees, Village Education Committees), with no linkage with Panchayats
19	Rajasthan	DRDA reportedly merged in 2003; however there are para-statals set up through multilateral funding as well as schemes of State and Union government
20	Sikkim	DRDA is separate
21	Tamil Nadu	DRDA separate institution; Chaired by the District Collector; many parallel bodies like in village education committee, watershed Associations, village forests committees exists.
22	Tripura	DRDA exists separately; President of ZP is the Chairman of DRDA
23	Uttar Pradesh	DRDAs separate; headed by ZP President; there are a few other parallel bodies
24	Uttarakhand	DRDA separate; ZP President is its chair; Van Panchayats, Village Education Committees are the other parallel bodies
25	West Bengal	DRDA merged; rechristened as DRDC of ZP;
26	Andaman & Nicobar	DRDA is separate; Out of three, only one ZP President is the Chair ofDRDA;
27	Chandigarh	No DRDA
28	Dadra & Nagar Haveli	DRDA is separate
29	Daman & Diu	DRDA continues to function as a separate body and have not been merged.
30	Lakshadweep	DRDA is said to be merged; ZP President is the Chair; DRDA providing support to the ZP; other parallel bodies relate to Central schemes such at the SSA;
31	Pondicherry	DRDA is separate; Attempts are made to link other parallel bodies with Panchayats;

II) NATIONAL BANK FOR AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT ( NABARD ):

 NABARD was established on the recommendations of Shivaraman Committee, by an act of Parliament on 12 July 1982 to implement the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development Act 1981. It replaced the Agricultural Credit Department (ACD) and Rural Planning and Credit Cell (RPCC) of Reserve Bank of India, and Agricultural Refinance and Development Corporation (ARDC). It is one of the premiere agencies to provide credit in rural areas. The govt. holds 99% stake in NABARD since RBI sold its share to the GOI.

Objectives of National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development are -

• The National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development would be the apex body pertaining to the planning of the financial and functional aspects of promotion for small-scale industries, agriculture, handicrafts, rural crafts, village industries, cottage industries, and any kind of commercial operations in the rural sector.
• The National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development would function as a refinancing organization for the credit given by financial agencies both long term loans and short term loans for promoting various kinds of activities in the rural sector.
  
  
• The National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development would facilitate the provision of direct loan to different institutions on the approval of the Central Government of India.
• The National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development would have constitutional connections with the apex bank, the Reserve Bank of India.

III) HARYANA STATE COOPERATIVE APEX BANK LIMITED:
HARCOBANK is the apex organisations for rural development in the state of Haryana and its purpose is to financially assist the artisans in the rural areas,farmers and the agrarian unskilled labour,small and big rural entrepreneurs of Haryana by functioning as an investor since three decades now. Its reach is across the length and breadth of Haryana through its numerous branches and associate partners.
Agrarian credits under HARCOBANK are-

• Loans schemes
• Interim finance by the means of cash loans
• Cash Credit against mortgage of property
• Crop Loan and Kisan Credit Card

Loan schemes under non-farm finance of HARCOBANK

• Loans against mortgage of jewelry and gold ornaments
• Loans to the students engaging in professional degree courses such as medicine, engineering, management, etc. based on the repayment capability of the applicant of the loan
• Loans for the purchase of taxi-cars, auto rickshaw, light commercial vehicles, motor buses, trucks, and others those who fall under the category of small transport operators
• Cash loan facility to traders and businessmen against mortgage of collateral or stock hypothecation trade
• Scheme for buying consumer durables
• Short time overdraft facility to people based on the credit report or presenting collateral securities, etc.
• Composite loan scheme
• Advances against national savings certificate (NSC)
• Farm sector activities
• Small transport operators, water, and road scheme
• Integrated loan scheme

Banking deposit schemes under HARCOBANK -

• Fixed Deposit
• Recurring Deposits
• Money Multiple Certificate (MMC)
• Re-investment Term Deposit (RITD)
• Combined Recurring Deposits and Provident Funds for different institutions

Staff Loan facilities under HARCOBANK -

• House Building Loan for construction, repair, extension of house property
• Conveyance Loan for vehicles for cars, scooters, motorcycles
• Computer Loans for household purpose of the employees

According to its financial position and its total performance at the domestic level, the National Federation of State Cooperative Banks (NAFSCOB) and National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) have awarded the Haryana State Cooperative Apex Bank Limited.

HARCOBANK-Awards

• Special award for Recovery and Profitability in 1998-99
• Special Award in Profitability for 1999-2000
• Special Award in Outreach, Recovery Performance and Profitability for 2000-01
• Special Award in performance for 2001-02
• Second-Overall Performance for 2002-03

IV) REGIONAL RURAL BANKS:
The main goal of establishing regional rural banks in India(1975 via the Narsimhan Committee report) was to provide credit to the rural people who are not economically strong enough, especially the small and marginal farmers, artisans, agricultural labours, and even small entrepreneurs. But there have been many issues regarding its financial viability numerous analysis and studies have been taking place to study the same.

Refer for list of the Regional Rural Banks In India:
http://time4education.com/bankexams/List_of_RRBs.aspx








V) VARIOUS MICROFINANCE INSTITUTIONS,NGOs & FOUNDATIONS:
 Microfinance institutions provide financial assistance to micro-entrepreneurs and small businesses where there is a lack of banking and related services due to high transaction costs associated while serving these client categories. They provide these financial services through relationship - based banking for individual entrepreneurs and small businesses; and group based models where several entrepreneurs come together to apply for loans and other services as a group.

These Microfinances are also assited by the NABARD. And to recognise their pivotal efforts, the GOI has recently passed the Microfinance Services Regulation Bill. Refer to article - http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/Cabinet-clears-Micro-Finance-Bill-RBI-to-regulate-MFIs/articleshow/13084668.cms    &     http://www.livemint.com/Politics/3Cy3bTQY2r4J7YuC6EpQqL/Finance-ministry-clears-proposed-national-microfinance-law.html

http://www.nabard.org/pdf/report_financial/chap_viii.pdf

For list of Microfinance Institutions: http://indiamicrofinance.com/top-50-microfinance-institutions-india.html


AVARD is Association of Voluntary Agencies for rural development - refer http://www.avard.in/

Also a mention should be made of the Aga Khan Rural Development Network which is a voluntary foundation doing exemplary work in Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Gujarat.

Refer -http://www.akdn.org/rural_development/india.asp










RURAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES - FOCI AND STRATEGIES:

Rural Development Programmes or Bharat Nirman Plan of the GOI comprise of the following:
i) Provision of basic infrastructure facilities in the rural areas like schools,health facilities,roads,drinking water,electrification,etc.

ii) Improving agricultural productivity in the rural areas.

iii) Provision of social services like health and education for socio - economic development.

iv) Implementing schemes for the promotion of rural industry increasing agricultural productivity, providing rural employment,etc.

v) Assistance to individual families and Self Help Groups living below poverty line by providing productive resources through credit and subsidy.

Refer - http://www.india.gov.in/sectors/rural/index.php?id=1 & http://www.bharatnirman.gov.in/welcome.html



Lets discuss them:
1) Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana - A fully funded Centrally Sponsored Scheme to provide all
weather road connectivity in rural areas of the country. The programme
envisages connecting all habitations with a population of 500 persons and
above in the plain areas and 250 persons and above in hill States, the tribal
and the desert areas.


2) Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana - SGSY is a major on-going scheme for the self-employment of the rural poor. The basic objective of the scheme is to bring the assisted poor families (swarozgaris) above the poverty line by providing them income generating assets through a mix of bank credit and government subsidy. Credit is the critical component of the scheme whereas the subsidy is an enabling element. The scheme involves organisation of the poor into Self Help Groups (SHGs) build their capacities through a process of social mobilization, their training, selection of key activities, planning of activity clusters, creation of infrastructure, provision of technology and marketing support, etc. Under the scheme focus is on the group approach. However, individual Swarozgaris are also assisted. The SGSY is being implemented by the District Rural Development Agencies (DRDAs) with the active involvement of Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs), banks, line Departments and the Non-Government Organisations (NGOs).

The credit mobilization under SGSY has been abysmally low. Further, a large number of SHGs are formed but fizzle out midway after availing the revolving fund. To make the scheme more effective it is being re-structured with a sharper focus on poorest of the poor people. A suitable mechanism will be put in place for higher social mobilization, capacity building and institution building among the target population

3) Rural Housing (Indira Awas Yojana) - The IAY is being implemented as an independent scheme since 1996. It aims to provide assistance for construction / up gradation of dwelling units to the Below Poverty Line (BPL) rural households, with special emphasis on SCs, STs and freed bonded labor categories. A maximum assistance of Rs 35,000 per unit is provided for construction in plain areas and Rs 38,500 per unit for hilly/difficult areas. Rs 15000 is given for up gradation of a dwelling unit for all areas. The funding of IAY is shared between the Centre and State in the ratio of 75:25. (100% in the case of UTs).

4) MGNREGA - The primary objective of the scheme is to provide guaranteed work for 100 days for any household wishing to have such employment. Although all households are eligible, the expectation is that only the poorer sections, i.e., landless labour and marginal farmers would actually seek work. The secondary objective is to ensure that employment generated is from works that raise land productivity.


5) National Social Assistance Programme - The National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP) was launched with the aim to provide social assistance benefit to poor households in the case of old age, death of primary breadwinner and maternity. The programme supplements the efforts of the State Governments with the objective of ensuring minimum national levels of well being and the Central assistance is an addition to the benefit that the States are already providing on Social Protection Schemes. With a view to ensure better linkage with nutrition and national population control programmes, the Maternity Benefit Component of the NSAP was transferred to the Department of Family Welfare, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare with effect from 2001-02. The schemes of NSAP and Annapurna have been transferred to the State Plan with effect from 2002-03 with a view to provide requisite flexibility to the State / UT in the choice and implementation of the schemes.


6) Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP) - During the Eleventh Plan, the three area development programmes, namely, Integrated Wasteland Development Programme, Drought Prone Area Programme and Desert Development Programme have been integrated and consolidated into a single programme called Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP). This consolidation is for optimum use of resources, sustainable outcomes an integrated planning. The common guidelines for the Watershed Development Programme have been formulated and are effective from 1.4.2008. An amount of Rs.1825 crore has been allocated for IWMP during 2008-09. The ongoing projects sanctioned prior to 1.4.2008 under DADP, DDP, and IWDP would be continued to be implemented as per old guidelines.

The modified IWMP would adopt a three tier approach in which the upper reaches which are mainly forested and hilly would be treated with the support of Forest Department. For land situated intermediate slopes above the agriculture lands, the IWMP would address all the necessary issues of land treatment by adopting best possible options including cropping pattern, horticulture and agro-forestry etc. In the lower tire, which are plains and mainly agricultural lands, the IWMP would be dovetailed with the employment generating programme such as National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGS) an would fill the critical gaps of NREGS and vice versa.

Under the new programme, a cluster approach would be followed with a broader vision of natural hydro-geographical unit of average size of 4,000 to 10,000 ha. comprising of clusters of micro-watershed to be selected as project area. The programme would be implemented by dedicated institutional agencies at state and central level. Professional support (in the form of multidisciplinary expert team) would be provided to support these institutions with proper fund allocation. A core GIS facility with spatial and non-spatial data augmented with satellite imagery data would be set up for giving Controlled access/distribution for local project planning.

The project period is proposed in the range of 5 to 7 years in three distinct phases, i.e. Preparatory, Watershed works and Consolidation phase. The consolidation phase will include livelihood activities, marketing, processing and value addition activities.

7) National Land Records Modernization Programme (NLRMP): The National Land Records Modernization Programme (NLRMP) has been conceptualized as a major system and reform initiative that is concerned not merely with computerization, updating and maintenance of land records and validation of titles, but also as a programme that will add value and provide a comprehensive database for planning developmental, regulatory and disaster management activities by providing location-specific information, while providing citizen services based on land records data.

Under the NLRMP, the following three layers of data will be integrated on a geographic information system (GIS) platform: Spatial data from satellite imagery/aerial photography, Survey of India and Forest Survey of India maps, and Revenue records: cadastral maps and RoR details. All cadastral maps will be digitized, and data included with plot numbers and unique id for each land parcel. Administrative unit boundaries from village level upwards (including panchayat, block, tehsil, circle, sub-division, district, division, State and national boundaries), forest, water bodies and other physical attributes of land and land use details will be overlaid, and other developmental layers (e.g., watersheds, road networks, etc.) added to the core GIS.

The activities to be supported under the Programme, inter alia, include survey/resurvey using modern technology including aerial photogrammetry, updating of land records including mutation records, completion of computerization of the records of rights (RoRs), computerization of registration, automatic generation of mutation notices, digitization of maps , integration of the entire system digitization of maps and training and capacity building of the concerned officials and functionaries. Connectivity amongst the land records and registration offices and land records management centers at tehsil/taluk/circle/block level would be supported. Access to land records data would be provided to Cooperative and other financial institutions for facilitating credit operations.

A major focus of the Programme will be on citizen services, such as providing records of rights (RoRs) with maps; other land-based certificates such as caste certificates, income certificates (particularly in rural areas), domicile certificates; information for eligibility for development programmes; land passbooks, etc.

In addition, the Programme will be of immense usefulness to the governments - both Central and State Governments - in modernizing and bringing efficiency to the land revenue administration as well as offering a comprehensive tool for planning various land-based developmental, regulatory and disaster management activities needing location-specific information. Even the private sector will be able to benefit from this comprehensive tool for planning business and economic activities.

For the above mentioned and other important programmes presently being implemented by the Ministry of Rural Development, refer and click on the respective links for detailed information:  http://rural.nic.in/sites/programmes-schemes.asp

DECENTRALIZATION AND PANCHAYATI RAJ:
For a vibrant and dynamic local self government Political Decentralization is a major advantage as then programming becomes more realistic and local problems receive immediate and urgent attention and the decision makers are more effectively accountable as local vigilance also increases thus reducing corruption.
Towards this goal, and keeping Gandhi ji's Sarvodaya (upliftment and progress of all) principle in mind,the GOI on 2nd October 1952(Gandhi Jayanti) launched a programme through which an all round development of the population ( rural) was sought that was termed as the Community Development Programme as a part of the first Five Year Plan alongwith a booster programme called the National Extension Services at the Block level headed by the Block Development Officer,however its implementation disclosed a distinct lack of citizen interest. Therefore, the Balwant Rai Mehta Committee to study and diagnose the same was set up and it brought forward the reason for this disinterest which was a dearth of avenues of popular participation in local level development programmes for the public/people.

The Balwant Rai Mehta Committee suggested the following as corrective measures in 1957:
i) A three tier Panchayati Raj structure to be established wherein the uppermost tier will be the Zilla Parishad ( District), while the lowermost tier shall be the Gram Panchayat ( Village level) and the intermediate tier was to be the Panchayat Samiti ( Block/ Taluk level).
ii) District Colector was to be the Chairperson of the Zilla Parishad and had an advisory and coordinating role.
iii) Panchayat Samiti to be entrusted with the executive powers.
iv) Direct elections to level of Gram Panchayat and higher level appointments to be made through nominations and other indirect means.
v) The Panchayat Samiti to have the headmen or sarpanch of the gram panchayat as its members while the Zilla Parishad shall be a body consisting of ex-officio members and headmen of the Panchayat Samiti.
vi) District or Zilla Parishad was seen as a unit for achieving democratic decentralisation and it was recommended as the unit for planning and organising as well as supervising district administrative functions.

This was implemented but some states were not in favour of giving such far reaching executive powers to the Panchayat Samiti ( Block level) and instead rooted for the District/Zilla Parishad as the executive body as it is alone capable of providing the requisite resources, administrative and technical personnel and equipment required for properly coordinated development. This was suported by the G.V.K Rao Committee as well that was setup to study the implementation of the abovementioned three tier structure. Maharashtra and Gujarat and Karnataka have adopted this model where the district is the executive body,in other states the Panchayat Samiti remains the executive body.

However, after the initial support and setting up of the Panchayati Raj in the villages, it suddenly took a backseat in the wake of new national and state level political leaderships in 1966 that had much thinner links with the Gandhian ideals and a leaning towards centralism and making the state governments subservient to the centre.And, the mounting food shortage of this period and crop failures led to reshuffling of priorities that focused on increasing agricultural production majorly. This reduced the role of the Panchayati raj from that of rural development to that of agricultural production as the new technologies for increased agricultural productivity gave leeway to the central government to enter the state and local governments' sphere of activity and subjects to implement the new programmes. The central government for implementing the new schemes and programmes in agriculture began to develop its own independent administrative hierarchies and  systematically bypassed the panchayati raj institutions.

All this was done through the bureaucracy,that is the District Collector at the local level and this led to alienation between bureaucracy and grassroot politicians viz. the ordering of affairs of the Panchayati Raj.

Coupled with this was the state government's lackadaisical attitude towards holding timely elections to these local bodies and when elected were suppressed by the state governments for the flimsiest of reasons. Inadequacy of funds available to these local bodies due to vested interests left them high and dry and incapable of initiating any developmental measures for the local community and thus they were totally on the mercy of the state and central governments.

Thus, seeing the pathetic condition of the Panchayati Raj Institutions, the Janata Party in 1977 set up  the Ashok Mehta Committee to examine the same. After examining the case, the committee recommended  the constitution of  two tier structure of PRIs with  'Mandal Panchayats' at the lower level and district level(Zilla Parishad) at the upper level.

Its detailed recommendations were:
i) A two tier structure (in place of a previously recommended three tier one) wherein the Zilla Parishad would remain the uppermost tier and  at the lower level,the ' Mandal Panchayat' was to be created for a cluster of villages having a population of 15 to 20 thousand and its 15 members to be directly elected by the people with a term of four years. He did not favour Gram Panchayats as he stated that the size of villages differed from district to district and hence there should be a standard benchmark for all districts. Note should be made, that after a while and conducting more studies he did recommend and favour the Block Level Panchayat Samiti arrangement to be kept as well as the intermediary between the Zilla Parishad and the Mandal Panchayats.

ii) The Zilla Parishad was to be the executive machinery at the District level.

iii) Participation of political parties in the elections to Panchayats to ensure continutiy of political process and aganda and making the local levels important and significant.

iv) Cabinet Minister with Panchayati Raj portfolio in the cabinet of the state Chief Minister to directly and specifically overlook the development of the local governments.

v) Constitution of a committee in the legislative assembly of the states to carry out a detailed scrutiny of the District Administration Programmes implementation in Panachayati Raj Institutions.

vi) Constitution of Nyaya Panchayats seperate from Development/Administrative Panchayat and to be headed by a Judicial Officer.

vii) Reservation of SC/ST in the Panchayats in proportion to their population in that Panchayat area and taxation powers to be given to the PRIs.

viii) Gram Sabha to be constituted together with the Gram Panchayat(elected representatives of the area through local people), consisting of all the electors/voters of that Panchayat area,who will be vested with the powers to consider the accounts and administration of the Panchayats and approve proposals for taxation and plans for development so that they are free from the hold of state governments, and they have to meet twice a year.


ix) Amendments to the Constitution to effect these changes.

x) The Chief Electoral Officer of the state in consultation with the Chief Election Commissioner should organise and conduct the Panchayati Raj elections.

xi) The state government should not supersede the Panchayat Raj institutions. In case of an imperative supersession, election should be held within 6 months from the date of supersession.

xii) The voluntary agencies should play an important role in mobilising the support of the people for Panchayati Raj.

As a result of this report, the Indian states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and West Bengal passed new legislation. However, the flow of politics at the state level later on did not allow the institutions to develop their own political dynamics.

Heavy centralisation during the Indira Gandhi regime subsequently started to bring back public opinion in favour of decentralisation seeing the shining models of Karnataka,Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal. So, when Rajiv Gandhi took over the reins, in order to consolidate his political mileage and interests that were deteriorating he took to the cause of Panchayati Raj Institutions to directly penetrate to the deepest level of voters bypassing the states. This was further strengthened by the L.M Singhvi's Commission on PRIs which recommended according of Constitutional status to PRIs and non involvement of Political parties in the elections to PRIs.

However, the bill was moved (64th Amendment) but fell flat in the upper house as Congress found itself out of power. In 1990, the National Front govt. under V.P Singh also moved another bill in the Parliament but it could not carry through as the govt. soon collapsed within no time.

Congress under the Prime Ministership of P.V Narsimha Rao in 1991 picked the PRI issue up again and consulted all major political parties while drafting the new PRI Bill and thus with all consent was passed in the parliament which was the 73rd Amendment Act in December 1991. It began operation in 1993 after its implementation was strategised and finalised and thus was opened a new chapter in History of the Panchayat Raj as a Constitutional body and made PRIs compulsory in all states and UTs with clear areas of jurisdiction and powers.









73RD CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENT:

The 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act is seen as the Magna Carta of decentralisation & social justice. The structure of the PRIs are broadly based on the Balwant Rai Mehta Committee report.


The main features of the Act Schedule XI, Part 9, ( Article 243 - 243o) are:
i) A 3 tier system of Panchayati Raj for all states having population of over 20 lakhs.
ii) All the seats in a panchayat at every level are to be filled by elections from respective territorial constituencies & Panchayat elections to be held regularly every 5 years.
iii) To appoint State Finance Commissions for making recommendations to suggest measures to strengthen finances of PRIs.
iv) To constitute District Planning Committees to prepare draft development plans and promote bottom-up-planning.
v) Estabilishment of State Election Commissions to supervise, direct and control the regular and smooth elections to panchayats
vi) Estabilishment of Gram Sabhas or village assembly as a deliberative body to decentralised governance.
vii) Reservation of seats for SC and ST and women ( not less than 1/3rd of seats).

An indicative list of 29 items has been given in Eleventh Schedule of the Constitution. Panchayats are expected to play an effective role in planning and implementation of works related to these 29 items.

The Gram Panchayat have been entrusted with both obligatory and discretionary functions which are both civic and developmental. The main emphasis being on development activities such as agriculture,primary education,health and sanitation and local amenities.

The Samithis throughout the country are entrusted with functions relating to planning and development. Its functions include agriculture and related activities, social welfare, education, health and sanitation,etc. They are also required to exercise supervision over the gram panchayats within its jurisdiction. In some Samithis, they also approve the budget of the Panchayats. In Maharasthra, the samithis implement development schemes formulated by Zilla Parishads and act as the committees of the latter.

The functions of the Zilla Parishad vary considerably from state to state. In some states they are concerned with supervisory and coordinating functions. In others they have specific role in regard to establishment and expansion of secondary education and vocational schools. In Maharasthra,however,it is the most important unit as it is entrusted with executive functions.

Nyaya Panchayats try petty civil and criminal cases and can impose fine. But they cannot award imprisonment. However, exceptions are there and in Bihar, Nyaya Panchayats may even award imprisonment. At times, Nyaya Panchayat gives only warning. District Officer may send for recommendation of any judgement given by Nyaya Panchayat. In general, the performance of Nyaya Panchayat is not encouraging because people do not appear before Nyaya Panchayats.

CURRENT SCENARIO:
At present, there are about 3 million elected representatives at all levels of the panchayat one-third of which are women. These members represent more than 2.4 lakh Gram Panchayats, about 6,000 intermediate level tiers and more than 500 district panchayats . Spread over the length and breadth of the country, the new panchayats cover about 96 per cent of India's more than 5.8 lakh villages and nearly 99.6 per cent of rural population. This is the largest experiment in decentralisation of governance in the history of humanity.
The Constitution visualises panchayats as institutions of self-governance. However, giving due consideration to the federal structure of our polity, most of the financial powers and authorities to be endowed on panchayats have been left at the discretion of concerned state legislatures. Consequently, the powers and functions vested in PRIs vary from state to state. These provisions combine representative and direct democracy into a synergy and are expected to result in an extension and deepening of democracy in India. Hence, panchayats have journeyed from an institution within the culture of India to attain constitutional status.



PROBLEMS IN IMPLEMENTATION AND SOLUTIONS:
i) The Centre and states continue to exercise powers in planning and the Panchayats do not enjoy autonomy financial and administrative as institutions of local self - government.

ii) The state governments often delay Panchayat elections on purely political considerations as they take advantage of the powers of issuing election notifications,delimitation of constituencies,earmarking of reserved seats and the State Election Commission's dependence upon the state govt. for logistic support including staff and finances. Therefor there is a need to strengthen the SECs by making specific provisions in the Constitution(through amendments to article 23k itself to make them independent of the state governments and draw expertise and guidance from the Election Commission of India and the State Election Commission shall submit its annual report to the Election Commission and to the Governor,every year and it may at any time submit special reports on any matter which in its opinion is of such urgency or importance that it should not be deferred till the submission of its annual report.

iii) Since the functions of the Panchayats are not posited as exclusive functions therefore, their role and governance depends on  the regime that controls the state government.

iv) States only assign them the responsibilities of implementing of the schemes/projects of the state and union,as a result they are only occupied with that and are not able to raise their might for the problems actually concerning the local areas/Panchayats they are in charge of. So, to correct this Article 243g of the Indian Constitution should be amended to declare the Panchayats as institutions of self-government and exclusive functions should be assigned to them that are clearly spelled out and demarcated for them.

v) State govts are still hesitant and reluctant in sharing their fiscal powers with the Panchayats and so there should be a separate tax domain/field exclusively for the PRIs and for this there should be an addition of a local list in the Seventh Schedule of the Indian Constitution together with the Union,State,Concurrent and Residual lists so that they gain their fiscal autonomy at par with the union and states.

vi) State Finance Commissions after collecting the reports from the local levels should submit its report to the Finance Commission for fund allocation and Finance Commission should make their recommendations in this light.

vii) The Constitution is silent on the topic of power of PRIs to recruit their own personnel to manage its functions and this has led to the slow growth of PRIs as self governing institutions. Thus there needs to be an amendment regarding the same to confer them with such autonomy.

viii) There should be a provision in the Indian Constitution to provide the Panchayats with an opportunity of being heard before dissolution by the state governments as this ommission has only lead to state governments carrying out their malafides whenever they want and dissolving the PRIs and then delaying elections,etc.

ix) The lack of coordination amongst the PRI machinery also needs to be addressed immediately for smooth rural development. There should be a provision for constitution of a state Panchayat Council under the chairmanship of the Chief Minister may be made in the Indian Constitution. And, the leader of opposition may be made the ex-officio vice chairman of the Council to provide consensus to the development of Panchayats as fully democratic,efficient and responsible institutions.

x) There is a lack of accountability of Panchayats because of inadequate provisions in law relating to audit of accounts of public bodies. And, there is not time frame to conduct audit of accounts of a given year,submit the report or comply with the objections raised in the report thus leading to misuse of funds,bad implementation of projects and overall weakening of the system. Therefore there should be changes made to these provisions for completing all the above in the given year itself. And, to ensure uniformity in this practice relating to audits of accounts,the C&AG of India be empowered to conduct the audit or lay down accounting standards for Panchayats.



This post ends here.


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The next post will cover:

Urban Local Government:
Municipal governance: main features,
structures, finance and problem areas;
74th Constitutional Amendment; Globallocal
debate; New localism; Development
dynamics, politics and administration with
special reference to city management.

Administrative Reforms since Independence: Major concerns; Important Committees and Commissions; Reforms in financial management and human resource development; Problems of implementation.

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ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS:
Reform - The word ' Reform ' means to make something better, to improve something or to remove the faults of something especially by changing its behaviour or structure.


Reform is an inherited feature of  Public(govt.) Administration because of the constant growth of its functions for catering to the ever increasing demands of society and to remain relevant in the changing times.


A single definition of Administrative reform has not been come to, however, there are two ways/approaches to understanding it:
i) Reform of Administration as a complex rebuilding of it.
ii) Reform to be a particular change within administration or just a modernising or improvising of administrative procedures.


Various aspects of Administrative reform are:
i) Political
ii) Legal
iii) Institutional
iv) Technical
v) Personnel
vi) Financial
viii) Social
ix) Psychological,etc.

These are often interlinked as well.


Stages in Administrative reform:
i) Theoretical
ii) Practical situation emergence for reform
iii) Preparation stage for implementation of reform
iv) Realisation of the reforms when there is success in achieving the stipulated aims that were pre-set.



Apart from national factors of reform, stress should also be put here on the role of International organisations such as UNO,EU,OECD, WB,IMF,etc. who push countries/members to reform their administrative practices through various means like development funds, Millennium Goals, Good Governance,Sanctions,etc.







ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS SINCE INDEPENDENCE IN INDIA:
Independence opened up new and bigger challenges before the country as it was under a solemn obligation to bring about social and economic improvement which was an all-round improvement in the lives of the people of the country. The government is irrevocably committed to the DPSPs enshrined in the Constitution,which directs it actively to work for the economic and social well being of the people,refer to importance of DPSP - http://publicadministrationtheone.blogspot.in/2012/09/philosophical-and-constitutional.html

Also, to achieve this apart from reforming administrative machinery,there was a need to reform the attitudes of the Civil services as well from a colonial hangover of domination and non transparency to sub servient to the people of India as envisaged in the Preamble of the Indian Constitution that begins with 'We, the people of India'.

The first reform in Public administration since Independence began with the introduction of the Parliamentary form of government based on Universal Adult Franchise which consequently transformed the civil services to an instrument/tool in the hands of the popularly elected government for implementation of its policies and programmes and a service provider to the public.

The next step in administrative reforms was the establishment of the All India Services,Central services and State services machinery.

After that came the decentralisation reform where Constitutional status was conferred upon local self governments in rural and urban areas which enhanced the arena and functions of Public administration.

 One must note that when the Constitution was being framed, the Constitution founding fathers did not pay much thought to the type of administrative machinery required for an Independent India as they felt that the inherited one was doing its job well,and,perhaps they also felt  that Constitutional and political changes were of major consequence that would automatically make its tool which is public administration undergo the requisite transformation under its impact.
However,such a interlink never really happened,and with the onset of the Planning Commission and its development Plans the painfully inadequate and weak administrative system was discovered. Thus, the first Five Year Plan called for reforms regarding the same.

So, the Staff Reorganisation Unit was setup in 1953, later renamed the Staff Inspection Unit under the Ministry of Finance to review staffing in government agencies with a view to achieve economy in staff consistent with administrative efficiency. This Unit is still in existence and doing useful work but is not directly or immediately related to administrative reform.

In 1954,the establishment of the O & M agency in the govt. located in the Cabinet Secretariat, to begin and sustain administrative efficiency in all branches of public administration brought in some hope for real administrative reforms. Its location in the Cabinet Secretariat enabled it to get cooperation and collaboration from all other Ministries and departments and direct them to achieve the same and keep them accountable. Refer to O & M in detail in this post - http://publicadministrationtheone.blogspot.in/2012/08/techniques-of-administrative.html







MAJOR CONCERNS DRIVING ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS:

i) Efficiency and Economy
ii) Specialisation
iii) Effective cooperation and coordination
iv) Administration and Development of Personnel
v) Accountability
vi) Corruption








IMPORTANT COMMITTEES AND COMMISSIONS ON ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS SINCE INDEPENDENCE:
 The A.D. Gorwala Committee appointed in 1951 by the Planning Commission and in 1953 the Appleby Commission was set up as well to analyse the administrative machinery for implementing planned development submitted its report with the recommendation to introduce O & M procedures in govt. departments as well as setting up of IIPA for advancement of administrative knowledge which was subsequently implemented.
In 1956, the Planning Commission again constituted the Committee on Plan Projects to carry out studies in the field of projects,with a view of evolving suitable forms of organisation,methods,standards and techniques for avoiding waste and ensuring efficient execution of projects. This Committee was wound up as a separate entity in 1970 but played an important part in developing development administration. Refer to post on Development Administration - http://publicadministrationtheone.blogspot.in/2012/08/development-dynamics-concept-of.html

The Second Pay Commission in 1959 recommended the pooling of the Secretariat and the attached offices into a single Headquarter organisation.

S. R. Das Committee, a one-man Commission which investigated allegations of corruption and misuse of power against Chief Minister Kairon of Punjab who lost his office as a result of his findings.

Santhanam Committee on Prevention of Corruption, in its report in 1964,found that corruption was not confined to only lower rank of public service. It recommended the setting up of the Central Vigilance Commission armed with adequate powers as well as a code of conduct for Ministers on par with the Chief Ministers of all states. However, once must note here that this reform has been diluted and the CVC has only been conferred advisory/recommendation powers and has to recommend to/take permission from the respective ministry/dept in order to proceed with investigating against its erring officials on the complaint through the CBI. If this machinery has to be made relevant and powerful then there has to be a release of it from this permission system as well as making the CBI an independent organisation away from the clutches of the government. However, the CVC does publish its reports and as to why its recommendations were rejected by the respective Ministry/Officials and if there is a strong and vigilant opposition then it can make a lot of difference and it has made a difference time and again when the situation is favourable.

First Administrative Reforms was set up in 1966 - 1970 with Morarji Desai as its Chairman and on his becoming Deputy Prime Minister, K. Hanumanthaiya took over. The Commission submitted 20 reports discussing different areas of administration and reforms for it with detailed 500 recommendations.
The Commission recommended entry into the middle and senior management levels in secretariat from all services. As well as holding of a mid - career competitive written examination for filling middle and senior level positions in the government and many other recommendations pertaining to the Public Service Commissions, however all of these were turned down due to lack of political will and bureaucratic dominance over implementation of the recommendations,but its recommendations on Training were accepted and implemented in entirety by the government as a plausible means of administrative reform and capacity building.

The biggest issue with implementing recommendations of commissions and committees is that there isn't a sound policy for the same. The responsibility of accepting/rejecting such recommendations is left to the concerned Ministry/department. The implementation branch in the Department of Administrative reforms is ruled by bureaucrats dissect these reports before submitting it to the Cabinet,so a bureaucrat would never pass any recommendation that is uncomfortable for him and his status/position. So it is killed at the very beginning.
Also the ARC's recommendation for a strong Lokpal was also accepted but has yet to see the light of the day since almost half a century of its recommendation.

There is a need for reform here which was recommended in the ARC report as well, where an all-party Parliamentary committee should be set up to keep a watch over the implementation of the accepted recommendations and report on the other recommendations as to why it cannot be accepted. And, during this process the bureaucrats should be kept away. Within three months of receipt of the report from the Commission , the govt. should place before the Parliament a white paper indicating its decisions regarding the recommendations and debates and discussions should ensue by the Parliamentarians for fair play.

The Jha  Commission on Economic Administrative reforms advocated the need to move towards accountability in the positive sense so that greater importance was given to performance instead of rules and regulations/procedures. The concept of Management by Objectives was introduced in the form of Annual Action plan for Ministries and Departments and Memoranda Of Understanding with PSUs,which we can see today ( giving status to PSUs like Navratna and Maharatna,etc.). Similarly, an online monitoring of managerial performance in infrastructure sectors was inititated.

Post this,the administrative reforms have shifted their attention to micro-levels and has since become an area of bureaucrats through the nodal administrative reforms agency i.e. the Department of Personnel and Administrative reforms under the Home Ministry which is manned by career civil servants that would not pass hard reform measures and is only content with soft pedestrian level reforms. On the personnel side of its functions, the Department formulates policies relating to recruitment,training,promotion,employer-employee relations,service conditions,etc. in the civil service. Staff welfare,discipline and morale in civil service and integrity in administration form a part of its portfolio. It also determines the policy relating to administrative reform in India.
But,the range and nature of the work undertaken by the Department above, makes the term administrative reform inappropriate as they are more akin to administrative improvement only,that is improvement of existing structures only that carries a local meaning and significance and the official manning it are far away from actual problems of administration and are just performing clerical activities.

To be effective, the Department needs to look around for fresh ideas and alternatives in the field of Public administration through meaningful and intelligent comparative studies and debates of Public and Personnel administration forums at the national as well as international level and undertake research on the same. It needs to shed its veil of secrecy and interact with the public more to improve its status as well as functions and gain respect from all departments and ministries who treat it as an outsider and do not allow it to study them or advise them.

The Fifth and Sixth Pay Commissions brought in a lot of reforms as well for sustaining the integrity and honesty of public administrators through enhanced pays that were implemented.
The arrival of the New Industrial Policy and LPG brought in a lot of major reforms, like the introduction of ICT technology in administration ( E- Governance) and Public-Private partnership, as well as dis investments in PSUs which has led to a higher efficiency as well as effectiveness in administration.

The Punchchi Commission also is worth noting here - refer to http://www.preservearticles.com/2011092814259/what-were-the-main-recommendations-of-punchhi-commission.html


The Second Administrative reforms Commission headed by Veerappa Moily has recommended that the subject of Public Administration/Governance be made mandatory for aspiring civil servants, besides setting up National Institutes of Public Administration and the Central Services Authority. The Government of India has come up with a draft Public Services Bill (2007) that aims to change the nature of the civil services as well as face the challenges to governance in the context of complex global challenges. This paper presents an overview of the changing nature of civil services in India in the post-Independence period with emphasis on the reforms and the challenges ahead. Refer - http://arc.gov.in/

Implementing Aadhar or Unique Identification Authority of India.

Expenditure Reforms Commission - that emphasized on a drastic downsizing of the government staff strength for securing modern and professional governance and also reducing the increasing salary bill of the Government of India.

The D.S. Kothari Committee Report on Recruitment Policy and Selection Methods, 1976, interalia recommended a major change in the examination system. It recommended a two-stage examination process – a preliminary examination followed by a main examination. This Committee also suggested changes in the training pattern for the civil services.


The Department of Administrative Reforms and Public Grievances(DARPC) has proposed a framework for good governance in the form of a Code of Governance. The main components of this Code are: (i)improving service delivery; (ii) development of programmes for weaker sections and backward areas; (iii) technology and system improvement; (iv) financial management and budget sanctity; (v)accountability and transparency; (vi) public service morale and anti-corruption; and (vii) incentivizing reforms.


However,to conclude here,the opinion is that the central reform agency has failed in its mission and hardly rises above organisational and O& M levels. The Planning Commission provides the perspective for planning and the DARPC does the policy planning,however both of these organisations are ill staffed for the same as they have specialsits mostly who are distant from the administrative realities,so there is a need to have a seperate long term Administrative reforms organisation,free of bureaucrats and staffed with eminent people who have practical knowledge of the working of administration and its major concerns to bring in bold administrative reforms and also people need to be made aware of their rights as well as the duties and responsibilities the public officials owe to them in which the NGOs and NPOs as well as civil society can make a lot of contribution and difference.







REFORMS IN FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT:
Public Finance Management basically deals with all aspects of resource mobilisation  and expenditure management in government. Very important in today's times as rising population and rising demands is leaving a big burden on the economy.

However Public Financial Management continues to be restricted to budget implementation,administration of payment systems,accounting and reporting in the states of funds received and spent.

Reforms however have been brought in that focus on results and outcomes rather than only on compliance with procedures as tools of modern financial management like IT and Financial information system are being implemented to improve efficiency and accountability.

Also the accounting system is being changed from cash based to accrual accounting for more transparency,clarity and efficiency.






REFORMS IN HUMAN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT:
There have been various commissions and committees set up mentioned above that also dealt with human resource development like training and capacity building as well as Pay Commissions that enhanced and recommended better recruitment & promotion practices as well as conditions of service,etc.

A mention should be made here of the reforms in the educational sector too for building the capacity of the human resource in a country like the Knowledge Commission and Education for all policy,setting up central and state open schools and universities as well as a variety of flexible as well as standardised distance learning courses as well as the enactment of the Right to Education Act.
Refer - http://mhrd.gov.in/policy_initiatives







PROBLEMS OF IMPLEMENTATION OF REFORMS:
i) Lack of Political will
ii) Lack of Bureaucratic will
iii) Bureaucratic stranglehold over administrative reforms
iv) Lack of long term strategising agency for administrative reforms free of bureaucratic stranglehold.
v) Lack of information dissemination among people and stakeholders of reforms being carried out.
vi) Over staffing and burden over the exchequer for paying salaries instead of diverting it to reforms implementations.
vii) Lack of comparative study and interaction of Administration practices and administrators internationally as well as among the public.
viii)Move from administrative improvement attitude within existing structures and machineries to proper administrative reformist attitudes that pushes the envelope.
ix) Lack of practical solutions and recommendations by the Commissions and committees at times due to idealistic/theoretical attitude or lack of practical experience in the subject.
x) Lack of awareness among public in regards to their rights and the public official's duties and responsibilities towards them.
 xi) Corruption and vested interests and weak anti corruption agencies.


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Civil Services: Constitutional position; Structure, recruitment, training and capacity-building; Good governance initiatives; Code of conduct and discipline; Staff associations; Political rights; Grievance redressal mechanism; Civil service neutrality; Civil service activism.

The evolution and Indianisation of Civil Services has been discussed already in a previous article of this blog,please refer - http://publicadministrationtheone.blogspot.in/2012/09/evolution-of-indian-administration.html


Today we will discuss the Civil Services since Independence and its current status.

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CIVIL SERVICES - CONSTITUTIONAL POSITION :
The term 'Civil Services' covers the large number of permanent officials required to run the Government machinery. The Parliamentary governing system of India entrusts the ultimate responsibility for running the administration with the elected representatives of the people,who are the 'Ministers'. These Ministers are accountable to the Legislature who are also elected by the people on the basis of universal adult franchise. Thus, this whole system ensures that these elected representatives are indirectly responsible to the people at the end.
However the handful of Ministers representing the government of India and states cannot be expected to deal personally with the manifold problems of modern administration. So, the Ministers keeping in mind the people's needs for which they have been elected to fulfill,lay down the policies(assisted by the civil servants) and it is for the civil servants to carry out these policies effectively and efficiently putting their specialist,practical and technical administrative experiences to use.

The Constitution through Article 312 adopts specifically the IAS and IPS cadres which had already been created earlier.
It empowers the Union Parliament to create more of such All India Services whenever deemed necessary or expedient in National Interest,provided the Rajya Sabha passes a resolution to the effect supported by not less than two thirds of the members present and voting. The Rajya Sabha has been given this privilege because it is composed of the representatives of different states,so its support will ensure the consent of the states to the creation of the new Services. The Indian Forest Services and the Indian Foreign Services are the two All India Services set up under and after this Constitutional provision.
The Constitution also authorises the Parliament to regulate by law,the recruitment and the conditions of services of persons appointed to these services.
For details of this Act - http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_India/Part_XIV#Article_308_.7BInterpretation.7D

The first Public Service Commission was setup in 1926. Courtesy Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel's efforts,  the All India Services was approved and formed with the services of IAS and IPS right at the beginning.  Later on,in 1961 a new All India Services were formed through the Rajya Sabha ,namely,the Indian Forest service.

The All India Services are a creation of certain services common to both - Centre & states. The officers are not exclusive to the Centre or states and may at any time be at the disposal of either.






CIVIL SERVICE VALUES:
A member of the civil service in discharge of his/her functions is to be guided by maintaining absolute integrity, allegiance to the constitution and the law of the nation, patriotism, national pride, devotion to duty, honesty, impartiality and transparency.







CIVIL SERVICES CODE OF CONDUCT AND DISCIPLINE:
The Government of India promotes values and a certain standard of ethics of requiring and facilitating every civil servant:

• To discharge official duty with responsibility, honesty, accountability and without discrimination.
• To ensure effective management, leadership development and personal growth.
• To avoid misuse of official position or information.
• To serve as instruments of good governance and foster social economic development.

Refer for in detail analysis to - http://publicadministrationtheone.blogspot.in/2012/08/personnel-administration-importance-of.html under the topic named - Code of Conduct .

Disciplinary action viz. Civil Services has been discussed already on a previous article of this blog under the topic Discipline, please refer to -  http://publicadministrationtheone.blogspot.in/2012/08/personnel-administration-importance-of.html .



Refer here for the above topics in IGNOU notes as well - http://www.scribd.com/doc/86650961/Www-Prep4civils-Com-Pub-Ad-04-Personnel-Admin-Sit-Ration



STRUCTURE OF THE CIVIL SERVICES:
There are two classes/classifications of services in the country as provided by the Constitution of India:

i) All India Services (IAS,IFS(Forest),IPS) -Appointments to these positions are done by the President Of India. These officials serve both the states and Centres. However their career and graph,service matters and conditions as well as grievances are handled by the Union Govt.

ii) Central Civil Services - Concerned only with the administration of Union Government's Ministries and departments(apart from Union Cabinet Ministries/Departments as that is handled by Cabinet Secretary and his/her office). Group A services are made by the President Of India and Group B officers are appointments are made by the authorities specified by a general or special order of the President.

iii) State Civil Services - For all the respective State ministries and departments.

 For more details on the specific posts of the above mentioned classifications, refer - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Civil_Services_(India)#Central_Civil_Services_.28CCS.29








RECRUITMENT TO THE CIVIL SERVICES:
Under Article 320 of the Constitution of India, the Union Public Service Commission is among other things required to be consulted on all matters relating to recruitment to civil services and posts.
Recruitment is made by one of the following methods:

i) Direct Recruitment - Conducted broadly under the following two methods:
a) Recruitment by competitive examination followed by interview . The former aims at judging the level of intelligence and academic learning and the latter attempts to make a measure of the qualities of personality and character.
b) Recruitment by selection through interview only.

ii) Promotion - From Group B to Group A,from one grade to another,etc.

iii) Transfer - Transfer on deputation(for a short period) or permanently between centre and centre officials or Central and state officials.


The UPSC conducts recruitment to the All India Services as well as the Central Civil Services, and the State Public Service Commissions conduct the recruitment to the State Civil Services.

Please refer to topic 'Recruitment' in - http://publicadministrationtheone.blogspot.in/2012/08/personnel-administration-importance-of.html







TRAINING AND CAPACITY BUILDING OF CIVIL SERVICES:
Young recruits to the Indian Civil,Police & Foreign services are given a five months foundational course at the National Academy at Mussourie(LBSNAA) and then special training in the training institutions which is service oriented for their respective services. The IAS stay behind in the academy to undergo further institutional training,and the IPS and IFS leave for their respective training institutions.The idea behind the five month foundational course is to instill in the officers of the higher services an understanding of the constitutional,economic and social framework within which they have to function as these largely determine the policies and programmes towards the framing and execution of which they will have to make their contribution,besides acquainting them with the machinery of the Government and the broad principles of Public Administration,aims and obligations of the Civil services and ethics of the profession.  The IAS service matters and conditions of service are managed by the Ministry of Personnel and Training.

After the IAS officers complete their training,they are sent to the state(allotted through cadre) for practical training. At the end of this training,he has to come back to the Academy for a second spell of training where emphasis is placed on the discussion of administrative problems encountered or observed by the probationer during his state tenure(which is one year). At the end of this second spell,the probationer has to sit for another UPSC exam before being given charge of a district sub-division.

The same follows for the IPS(under Union Home Ministry) and IFS(under Ministry of External affairs),after they finish their institutional training for their respective services which is for about one year,they again have to go through a UPSC exam before they are posted to their respective offices that are allotted to them.

For top Government and Business executives,the Administrative Staff College,Hyderabad provides a 4 month course for development of executive and managerial practices of administrators that helps effectively carry out administration of various national as well as international development programmes in this LPG era.
Many training schools have been set up in several States to train recruits to the higher levels of
the state services.
Refresher trainings are also provided from time to time (15 years in service officers) through the Indian Institute of Public Administration for capacity building of the civil servants and also a number of measures have to be taken ,and ,are in fact being taken for simplification of rules and procedures, delegation of enhanced powers,better enforcement and accountability and speedy redress of public grievances.
This as well as Promotion,Performance Appraisal and pay and service conditions of civil servants has been discussed in detail in previous posts of this blog,refer - http://publicadministrationtheone.blogspot.in/2012/08/accountability-and-control-concepts-of.html
http://publicadministrationtheone.blogspot.in/2012/08/techniques-of-administrative.html
http://publicadministrationtheone.blogspot.in/2012/08/development-dynamics-concept-of.html
http://publicadministrationtheone.blogspot.in/2012/08/personnel-administration-importance-of.html


The lack of a sound and integrated training policy for employees is a major flaw and there is no direct connection between training and promotion therefore administrators are not encouraged to go in for trainings. Also the training modules and content need to be according to the times as well as the changing socio-economic climate of the society and administration to be relevant.





CENTRAL CIVIL SERVICES TRAINING AND CAPACITY BUILDING:
The Central Civil Services too attend a five month foundational course at the LBSNAA and other Central Training Institutes before they are sent to trainig for their respective services,they are unifunctional in nature so their syllabus differs from that of the All India Services and is concerned more regarding their work. He is also given practical training and at the end of it he has to pass a departmental examination in the subjects directly related to his work before he is sent for his first posting in that respective department that is under his cadre. The FInance Ministry takes care of their service matters and conditions of service.

Also refer for in depth analysis - http://publicadministrationtheone.blogspot.in/2012/08/personnel-administration-importance-of.html








GOOD GOVERNANCE INITIATIVES IN CIVIL SERVICES:

 Good Governance as a concept has been discussed earlier in the posts on this blog, for that please refer - http://publicadministrationtheone.blogspot.in/2012/07/wilsons-view-of-public.html
http://publicadministrationtheone.blogspot.in/2012/08/accountability-and-control-concepts-of.html
http://publicadministrationtheone.blogspot.in/2012/08/development-dynamics-concept-of.html
http://publicadministrationtheone.blogspot.in/2012/08/techniques-of-administrative.html


There is as such no definition of good governance, however it is a type of performance calculator of a government of a country on the basis of certain parameters of a government functioning that protects and encourages human rights in a country. As specified by UNESCAP those parameters are - whether the governance of a country is participatory, consensus oriented, accountable, transparent, responsive, effective & efficient, equitable & inclusive and follows the rule of law.

The World Bank has identified three discrete aspects of governance which needs to be emphasized for reform: “i) the form of political regime; ii) the process by which authority is exercised in the management of a country’s economic and social resources for development; and iii)the capacity of government to design, formulate and implement policies and discharge functions." This again establishes the close link between democracy, economic development and good governance.

So now,as we can see from the above that civil services is a very pivotal part of good governance and so civil services reforms are a part of Good Governance. There have been many reforms as such :
i) Right to Information Act

ii) E- Governance , National Knowledge Commission

iii) Committee on civil services reforms ( P.C. Hota Committee) -  emphasized the use of information and communication technologies (ICT) to transform Government by making it more accessible, effective and accountable. It stressed on the need to recognize that e-governance is about discarding old procedures and transforming the process of decision-making and that technology is merely a tool and a catalyst for such transformations. Significantly, the concept of public-private partnerships has been recognized as a guiding principle to that end.

iv) Prime Minister's award for excellence in the field of Public Administration

v) Citizens Charter

vi) Increase in pay through sixth pay commission

vii) First Administrative Reforms Commission- Recommended especially on recruitment, recruitment agencies, training, promotion, service conditions, etc. &
Second Administrative reform Commission - Headed by Veerappa Moily has recommended that the subject of Public Administration/Governance be made mandatory for aspiring civil servants, besides setting up National Institutes of Public Administration and the Central Services Authority. The Government of India has come up with a draft Public Services Bill (2007) that aims to change the nature of the civil services as well as face the challenges to governance in the context of complex global challenges. This paper presents an overview of the changing nature of civil services in India in the post-Independence period with emphasis on the reforms and the challenges ahead.

viii) Aadhar or Unique Identification Authority of India

ix) Many Election reforms through the Election Commission

x) Expenditure Reforms Commission -  that emphasized on a drastic downsizing of the government staff strength for securing modern and professional governance and also reducing the increasing salary bill of the Government of India.

xi) The D.S. Kothari Committee Report on Recruitment Policy and Selection Methods, 1976, interalia recommended a major change in the examination system. It recommended a two-stage examination process – a preliminary examination followed by a main examination. This Committee also suggested changes in the training pattern for the civil services.


The Department of Administrative Reforms and Public Grievances has proposed a framework for good governance in the form of a Code of Governance. The main components of this Code are: (i)improving service delivery; (ii) development of programmes for weaker sections and backward areas; (iii) technology and system improvement; (iv) financial management and budget sanctity; (v)accountability and transparency; (vi) public service morale and anti-corruption; and (vii) incentivizing reforms.






STAFF ASSOCIATIONS & POLITICAL RIGHTS OF CIVIL SERVANTS:
This has been covered in the following post under the topic of Employer-Employee relations - http://publicadministrationtheone.blogspot.in/2012/08/personnel-administration-importance-of.html






 GRIEVANCE REDRESSAL MECHANISM FOR CIVIL SERVANTS:
Already discussed in http://publicadministrationtheone.blogspot.in/2012/08/administrative-law-meaning-scope-and.html under the topic of Tribunals.






CIVIL SERVICE NEUTRALITY:
One of the foundational pillars of an effective,competent and corruption free civil service is for it to be neutral & fearless in its approach & faithful to the Constitution(the people) while carrying out their duties , and not soliciting for patronage from any party for vested interests.

 The founding fathers of the Constitution wisely provided, by making provisions in Part XIV of the Constitution, for apolitical and independent civil services, with requisite
protection for service matters that pertain to both the Union and the states.
This is enhanced through the Constitution of India through the practice of Ministerial accountability to the Lok Sabha for administrative action.
The concept of neutrality has three implications: (i) public confidence in the non-political character of public service, (ii) confidence of ministers belonging to any political party in the loyalty of the permanent subordinates, and (iii) high morale of public servants based on the confidence that promoting would be made not on the basis of political considerations but on merit. This was developed in Britain Switzerland and other countries that follow British pattern of administration.

Unfortunately, political interference and administrative acquiescence has severely dented the professional fibre of the service,reason being civil servants being in fear of regular transfers if not giving into the political masters and the politicians not allowing these civil servants to do their jobs due to their vested interests and initiate unnecessary disciplinary actions and transfers and using them as a tool against honest and upright civil servants who do not bow down to their unholy demands.

Still, the solution to this rests upon the Public servant's shoulders more. Civil Servants have to bring a new orientation to rules by which the everyday conduct of public affairs has to be regulated. Civil servants have much to contribute to the shaping and not just implementation of the policy.They should remain upright with full integrity and perform their duties even if it means a transfer. And if wrongly charged,then approach the grievance redressal mechanisms(legal as well as constitutional) and courts in the proper protocol and fight against the injustice,because in the end the truth alone will triumph.

Complaints to CVC(which is only an advisory body and requires permission of the respective Ministry/department for direction to CBI to investigate),CBI,Police or Lokayuktas can be done regarding erring Bureaucrats or Ministers, however all these organisations come under the control of the Centre/Union and states and therefore this is the big lacunae causing people to fear consulting it.

These organisations need to be made independent of political functioning in order to have an effective anti-corruption machinery in India.

However, one should not lose hope and approach these as and when required,because if one is persevering then justice can be achieved.

A strong Lokpal Bill will also bring in a lot of hope,but unfortunately this too is being dilly-dallied due to vested interests.

A good Whistleblower Protection Bill  is the need of the hour to ensure civil service neutrality as well as civil service activism. The Whistleblower protection Bill has been in consideration since a long time by the Union Cabinet,however it is yet to get a face.






CIVIL SERVICE ACTIVISM:
Civil service activism includes all steps like for eg. civil servants holding public meetings, asking for feedbacks, making people aware of their rights, ensuring quality of goods and services provided by the govt is up to the mark, inspection, monitoring, reports, and taking a strict stand against policies or decisions of their ministers that are against his constitutionally specified duties,and bringing in major reforms and overhauling in the office he/she has been allotted to and its management,making it people-centric and transparent.
A very good example of this at the present moment is that of CAG of India Mr. Vinod Rai and his reports on 2G as well as the Coal allocations/licences in the Parliament.
Another good example of earlier times of such activism can be given of Mr. T.N Seshan,the former Chief Election Commissioner who was largely successful in ending electoral malpractices in India and making the Election Commission a powerful,efficient and transparent body.
Madam Kiran Bedi is another shining example of Police reforms during her stint as an IPS officer.

Do refer to this very informative press release by The Hindu Newspaper - http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/article2532180.ece



This article ends here.





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The next chapter of the UPSC Mains syllabus i.e. - 

Financial Management:
Budget as a political instrument; Parliamentary
control of public expenditure; Role
of finance ministry in monetary and fiscal
area; Accounting techniques; Audit; Role
of Controller General of Accounts and
Comptroller and Auditor General of India.

has already been discussed in detail in a previous article of this blog,so please refer to - http://publicadministrationtheone.blogspot.in/2012/08/financial-administration-monetary-and.html (for the topics -
Budget as a political instrument; Role
of finance ministry in monetary and fiscal
area; Audit;
Comptroller and Auditor General of India) ,


For the topic - Role of Controller General of Accounts and Accounting Techniques, refer to - http://www.cga.nic.in/ , http://www.cga.nic.in/html/Vision_and_Mission.htm , http://finmin.nic.in/the_ministry/dept_expenditure/controller_general_accounts/index.asp , http://220.227.161.86/103251018-1029.pdf , http://www.siliconindia.com/shownews/India_to_change_format_of_government_accounting_-nid-56256-cid-TNI.html & http://www.indiastudychannel.com/resources/142585-Accrual-Accounting-India.aspx

&

Regarding the topic - Parliamentary/Legislative control over Public Expenditure , refer to - http://publicadministrationtheone.blogspot.in/2012/08/accountability-and-control-concepts-of.html




Note:  FINANCIAL ADMINISTRATION AND FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT:
Financial administration is the higher level or the father figure of Financial Management. It concerns itself with the overall determination of policies, setting of major objectives, the identification of general purposes and laying down of broad programmes and projects. It provides the guidance, leadership & control of the efforts of the groups towards some common goals.
It is done through elected representatives of people,that is Ministers and Parliament assisted by civil servants.

Whereas, Financial Management involves conceiving, initiating and bringing together the various elements; coordinating, actuating, integrating the diverse organizational components while sustaining the viability of the organization towards some pre-determined goals layed down by Financial Administration. In other words, it is an art of getting things done through & with the people in formally organized groups.
Financial Management (which is carried out through the Finance Ministry's Department of Expenditure) is concerned with what happens after the political and legislative processes are done with , and finance/revenue has been appropriated as per the Budget. It is concerned with the employment of management techniques of financial management in disbursing,accounting and auditing of the finance/revenue given out to the requisite departments and ministries for implementation/administration of the Budget under the aegis of the Finance Ministry.
This Financial management is carried out through the civil servants (recruited through UPSC to the Central Civil Services Group A - Indian Audits & Accounts Service who are known as the Principal Accountant General(Audit functions) and Accountant General ( Accounts) in each state. Bigger states may have an additional Accountant General -Audit as well) and their secretariat offices in the respective Ministries/Departments, and the CGA(Controller General of Accounting) of India & the CAG Of India . The civil servants,in charge of accounts compile the reports of accounts and submit to the CGA who then submits his reports to the Finance Ministry, and, the CAG for audit so that these both reports can be presented in Parliament by the President and by the Governor in the state Legislative Assembly.
The Audit officers of the states submit their report to the CAG who audits it at his level once more along with the CGA's Accounts reports and provides for it to be tabled in the Parliament by the President and in the state Legislative assembly by the Governor for review by the Parliamentary Accounts Committee and the Parliamentary proceedings thereafter.
Please refer to - http://finmin.nic.in/the_ministry/dept_expenditure/index.asp
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The next article on this blog will cover:

Administrative Reforms since Independence:
Major concerns; Important Committees and
Commissions; Reforms in financial management
and human resource development;
Problems of implementation.


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District Administration since Independence: Changing role of the Collector; Union -state local relations; Imperatives of development management and law and order administration; District administration and democratic decentralization.

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DISTRICT ADMINISTRATION - EVOLUTION:
District as a basic unit of field administration has been in existence through the ages. It is surprising to know that it has not changed substantially since the times of Manu in his description of a district in Manusmrithi where 1000 villages were grouped together to form a district and placed under the charge of an officer. However,the territorial structure of administration of India can be traced to the Mauryan era where revenue villages were called  'gramas',a group of revenue villages called 'stana'(visaya or taluk),several 'stanas' called 'aharas' or the District,a group of Districts called 'Pradesh' or the region/state and several 'pradeshas' called the 'Janapada' or a province/country.
The head of the District Administration had both revenue as well as police functions and is comparable to the present day District Collector. The District Collector's office succeeded the office of Kirori/Faujdar in the Mughal period.
Under the British rule and their experiments with the field of administration,in 1781 the district again became the unit of administration under the District Collector as the District head.
Thus,the present day District Administration has historical roots. However, this was non transparent and was laid out for loyalty to the British rule and establish its hegemony through the length and breadth of the country through a strong,disciplined and supervised office of the District Collector for regular collection of revenue.

Independence,and adoption of welfare state necessitated a complete reorientation of the concept of District Administration. The main stress has been on Development Administration and the introduction of the Panchayati Raj Institutions was a radical change in the field of district administration as it called for strengthening of the local units vs the office of District Collector and reducing the latter's role to that of a supervising and coordinating authority only in many states (Andhra Pradesh & Rajasthan)whereas in some states the Zilla Parishad or District level bodies still retain a stronghold (Maharashtra and Gujarat).

Let's discuss this in detail below .








DISTRICT ADMINISTRATION SINCE INDEPENDENCE:
The District in India is the cutting edge of administration. The District administration is headed by the District Collector/Deputy Commissioner,drawn from IAS and he is responsible among others for the general control and direction of the police which is headed by the Superintendent of Police.
The District is split up into a number of sub divisions called 'Talukas' for the purpose of Administrative convenience. And to have a better supervision of the many Taluks,there has been a grouping of the taluks,each group of taluks under a Division which is headed by an official called 'Tehsildar'. These Tehsildars are state level officers and are called subdivisional or revenue divisional officers. Right at the bottom of Dsitrict>Divisions>Taluks there are the basic units which are the villages. in some states the Blocks and Taluks are coterminous in District Administration. The District Collector through the ZIila Parishads,Blocks(Panchayat Samithis)/Taluks and Gram Panchayat administer development programmes and supervises them. However,massive non-transparency due to illiteracy among people these officials are often found involved in wrong doings and erratic behaviour as well as functioning as agents of the ruling state party or Union/centre's  leading to revolts and outbursts from time to time. This hinders growth and development majorly.







CHANGING ROLE OF THE DISTRICT COLLECTOR:
We have already discussed the evolution and role of the District Collector before Independence,now we shall look into its growth and status post independence.
District Collector(DC) is also known as the Deputy Commissioner in states like Karnataka and Punjab.
Ever since the creation of this office in 1772,the District Collector's office continues to be the administrative head of District Administration. Basically,the DC has three major functions namely revenue,magisterial and developmental. Apart from these major functions,a large number of miscellaneous functions are also entrusted to him by state and Central governments like conduct of elections,dealing with calamities,supervising local govt. institutions,etc..
Collector was mainly entrusted with revenue administration,however, since Independence with the considerable change in the nature of the state from police rule to development and welfare his role to has shown a shift in the direction of development as he implements all the development programmes. The collector has overall control of the police administration of a state and this he is assisted by the Superintendent of the Police who is in charge of the whole district police force. The Collector advises the government on various aspects of law and order.
Since he is a Generalist,he coordinates the activities of overall departments under Specialists like Engineers,doctors,etc. by holding meetings among them at periodic intervals.
He is also to be the Friend,Philosopher and Guide of the Panchayati Raj Institutions.






FUNCTIONS OF THE DISTRICT COLLECTOR:
i)Maintenance of Land records,collection of Land revenue and allied matters.
ii) Land acquisition.
iii) Control over extraction of Minor Minerals and collection of royalty for minor minerals.
iv) Local Self Govt.
v) Resettlement of Project Affected Persons during Disaster management and during riots/external aggression.
vi) Town Planning
vii) Elections
viii) Entertainment
ix) Civil Supplies
x) Land reforms
xi) Poverty alleviation
xii) Law and Order,supervision of police and jails,supervision of subordinate executive magistracy,hearing cases under the preventive section of the Criminal Procedure Code,certification to execute capital punishments.


This is the changing role of the Collector from the ancient times and British times to the contemporary times since Independence.

Even though the District Collector's office has undergone many changes since its inception,he still holds major importance in Centre-State relations and development at the local levels.






UNION-STATE LOCAL RELATIONS:
The Union and Centre relations have been discussed in detail in the previous article of this blog.
Today we will be discussing their relations in regard to local govt.
When the British left India, Sardar Patel pressed for, and got the approval for retaining the ongoing civil services machinery, however, with a more welfare and people oriented approach in order to maintain the highest possible standard of efficiency & giving the civil service an experience at the Centre; leading to efficiency and administrative experience of the District, and of it serving as a liasion between the states and the Union/Central govt,and of introducing both in the states and at the Centre a progressive and wide outlook and freshness and vigour of administration. Thus,was born the All India Administrative Services.
Though the local govt. comes under the subjects of the state list,still,the overall policy framework,funding and Planning in India is centrally controlled. So,since functioning and day to day affairs of the state local government offices and officials come under the state list therefore,the Centre provides for policy making and Planning functions as well as funding and the implementation part is passed on to the states for efficiency and successful implementation of the schemes purposes. And this is reviewed by the Union/Centre from time to time as discussed in the Planning Commission article earlier in this blog.
Therefore,welfare policies/schemes and programmes are of three types:
i) Centrally sponsored - Where the Centre takes responsibility of the all or 2/3rd of funding.
ii) Centre-State sponsored - Where the funding is shared equally between the two governments.
iii) State sponsored schemes - Where funding is totally from the state side.

One must take note that the District Collector is a Union/Central officer as he is appointed by the state government from the Indian Administrative Services . All his career progression and service related issues and grievances are handled by the Central govt.
It has been systemised in such a manner so that the DC functions in a neutral and unbiased manner,without any fear,  regarding his/her duties and responsibilities ,and implementation of welfare/development activities of both the Centre and the state in the respective district he/she has been assigned to.
Even though the DC's career and service matters are dealt with the Centre and he will eventually proceed from the states to the centre in his career graph,he has to first prove his mettle at the state level, and at this level he works under the supervision of the state government and reports to them regarding discharge of his functions.


Secondly, coordination between centre-states is important for proper supervision of implementation of these schemes and programmes to achieve the welfare policies.

However, issues plaguing this system are there and to study it in detail,refer to - http://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/articles/ncsxna/ncsax2a.htm








IMPERATIVES OF DEVELOPMENT MANAGEMENT AND LAW AND ORDER  ADMINISTRATION:
Development management deals with the coordination and management processes of international development programs and projects. The dominant paradigm in development management is the intervention in the form of a transfer of aid by an external agency/donor and the oversight of the related project cycle, i.e. project identification, planning (formulation and appraisal), implementation and monitoring, and evaluation.
The term development management is used in the sense of achievement and objectives with optimum use of limited resources in manpower, finance, material, time and also active contribution to the clarification and reformation of policies and objectives.
The urgency/imperativeness of this is seen in light of the LPG era and immense pressure being put on developing nations to achieve goals and policies being set by the International organisations and the obligation to fulfill these to remain updated and in the race. However,one must note that not every country can compete as the other,however,India specifically needs to shift its focus from development administration to a more efficient development management perspective and practice in order to remain in the league. For this many courses as well as programmes are being rolled out bu the country's education system as well as sponsored by the international organisations. Also, there should be a lot more emphasis on re-training of administrators in service to develop these management skills and become more efficient to achieve these goals and objectives.

 Law and order(judiciary,Police,etc) administration is one of the most important function performed by the Government. Infact,the survival of administration depends upon maintenance of law and order in a country. The functioning of law and order administration comes under the state list with the Union/Central government having advisory and coordinating role(discussed in last post on this blog). Unfortunately,in view of the prevailing atmosphere of violence in the country,attention to law and order is called for,but,the sad part is that this is being neglected in favour of development administration.
Therefore,it is imperative that law and order is given adequate attention and it is built up both on the infrastructural as well as intelligence and implementation level and its grievances and issues sorted out if we want a sound welfare state where development and law and order go hand in hand otherwise development will be stalled.







DISTRICT ADMINISTRATION AND DEMOCRATIC DECENTRALISATION:
Democratic decentralisation here is used in reference to the 73rd and 74th amendment acts of 1992 that set up rural and urban local government bodies,viz. Panchayati raj institutions(PRIs) and Municipalities respectively.
The PRIs were set up to move decision making centres closer to the people by transferring the powers of decision making from higher authorities to them,all development schemes and its funds to be channelised through them,inculcating leadership qualities among the rural masses,encouraging people's participation in planning and policy making,etc.

However the ground relaities are:
i) Bureaucratic resistance to delegation of power to PRIs
ii) Vested interests of higher officials and middlemen take over in between.
iii) Elitist behaviour and biasedness among the bureaucrats and government officials.
iv) No incentive to the DC in development activities.

However,there has been constant debate as to whether the District Collector who represents the Centre and states be a part of this or he should simply supervise as the minds of the rural people are constantly suspicious towards them. This causes a lot of problems in effective administration and implementation of programmes.
Another aspect to this debate is that with so much of responsibility,the DC will be distracted from his other major functions like law and order,etc.


Solutions to the above mentioned issues:
i) Changing the mindsets of both the DC and the PRIs through attitudinal training
ii) Role and Goal clarity specifically put in front of both so no confusions and encroachment is done later.
iii) A good complaint and redressal system/mechanism for both through a neutral administrative or judicial body.

&

Also refer to topic ' Government Reforms' here -  http://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/articles/ncsxna/ncsax2b.htm#2d


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The next article on this blog will cover:

Civil Services:
Constitutional position; Structure, recruitment,
training and capacity-building; Good
governance initiatives; Code of conduct and
discipline; Staff associations; Political rights;
Grievance redressal mechanism; Civil service
neutrality; Civil service activism.