Sociologists have long debated whether nature or nurture is
the key to what people are and how they act. Administrative culture, in its
broadest sense is understood as the modal pattern of values, beliefs,
attitudes, and predispositions that characterise and identify any given
administrative system. The administrative culture of any part of the globe
reflects the distinctiveness and complexity of various regional, national, and
local realities; their unique historical experiences, their forms of insertion.
Such cultures are historical products, where past experiences, myths, and
traditions have shaped modal psychological orientations. Any administrative
culture is also conditioned by existing structural and conjunctional
circumstances and challenges. Decision making is one of the most important
aspects of administration and is greatly influenced by the prevailing politico-
administrative culture of the organisation. The interdisciplinary framework of
decisionmaking is one of the important aspects for any administrator for
arriving at a decision. Though efforts are made to nurture the personnel system
to form a homogeneous group, still the internalised behaviour pattern and the
nature do continue. Besides these, the psychological factors also play a great
role on the individual behaviour which affects the decision making process. The
article examines the decision making process as a factor of
politico-administrative culture.
THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL concept of culture, covers all facets of
humans in society: knowledge, behaviour, beliefs, art, morals, law, customs,
etc. (Singer, 1968). Despite some differences of emphasis, anthropologists
agree that a culture is the way of life of a given society. Sociologists have
long debated whether nature (our biological inheritance) or nurture (our social
inheritance) is the key to what people are and how they act. Most sociologists
hold that both are vital in determining individual personality and behaviour.
Taylor (1913) defined culture as “that complex whole which includes knowledge,
belief, art, morals, laws, customs, and many other capabilities and habits
acquired by man as a member of society”. Thus, Taylor’s definition contains
three critical components: (i) that complex whole; (ii) acquired by man; and
(iii) as a member of society. Thus, the inter-connectedness of characteristics
that, together, form a culture. Political culture is defined by the
International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences as “the set of attitudes,
beliefs and sentiments that give order and meaning to a political process and
which provide the underlying assumptions and rules that govern behaviour in the
political system”. It encompasses both the political ideals and operating norms
of a polity. Political culture is thus the manifestation in aggregate form of
the psychological and subjective dimensions of politics. A political culture is
the product of both the collective history of a political system and the life
histories of the members of the system and thus it is rooted equally in public
events and private experience”
Administrative culture, in its broadest sense is understood
as the modal pattern of values, beliefs, attitudes, and predispositions that
characterise and identify any given administrative system. In this inclusive
definition both the private and public spheres of the managerial ethos are
covered, for societies in general possess certain specific ways of “getting
things done”, which transcend the official sphere. The construction of an
administrative mind-set presents significant difficulties. Yet, it is possible
to configure clusters of cultural matrices that have important heuristic value
in understanding the relationship among contexts, structures, behaviours, and
effects (Dwivedi and Nef, 1998).
Two main perspectives may assist us in understanding the
politicoadministrative culture of an organisation. First, the government
administration in all nations happens to be larger and more complex than any
single organisation, being composed of many departments, agencies, and
corporation and so on. Second, policies and administrative decisions get
implemented through the state apparatus, state financial and other resources
are distributed, and the entire society is affected in many ways by attending
administrative culture. The behaviour of the state apparatus depends on the
kind of political and administrative culture prevailing in a country. No
administrative culture is monolithic; instead it is part of wider culture of a
society including its constituent parts such as political, economic, social,
religious, corporate, and civil society cultures. Nevertheless, it is the
political culture that influences the administrative culture most because it
brings its political values to modulate the behaviour of state employees. A
composite administrative culture reflects the values of all constituent parts.
The administrative culture, like all cultures, is not
uniform but does differ (Dwivedi and Nef, 1998). The administrative culture of
any part of the globe reflects the distinctiveness and complexity of various
regional, national, and local realities; their unique historical experiences,
their forms of insertion. Such cultures are historical products, where past
experiences, myths, and traditions have shaped modal psychological
orientations. Any administrative culture is also conditioned by existing
structural and conjunctional circumstances and challenges. The administrative
culture is a part of a larger attitudinal matrix, containing values, practices,
and orientations toward the physical environment, the economy, the social
system, the polity, and cultures itself. Administrative cultures, like all
cultures, are dynamic and subject to change. Syncretism, continuities, and discontinuities
are part and parcel of their fabric and texture. An administrative culture is
the result of a process of immersion, acculturation and socialisation, whose
structural drivers are implicit as well as induced and explicit. Administrative
cultures are influenced by global and regional trends. In the lesser –developed
regions of the world, they are particularly derivative, reflecting a
center-priphery mode of international political economy.
Riggs (1961) has drawn upon the structural–functional approach
that has gained considerable currency in political science in recent times.
According to this approach all societies perform an array of functions such as
administrative functions, religious functions, and economic functions and so
on. Societies usually have a variety of structures that perform the different
functions. In traditional societies, one encounters a few structures, as a
family or a leader that would be performing a whole host of functions like rule
making, rule adjudication, economic allocation even medical and health
administration. As society grows and develops, more and more specialised
structures appear, each one of which becomes engaged in specific functions. So,
differentiation of structures may be looked at as the essence of development.
Using an analogy, Riggs pictures the process of differentiation as sunlight
passing through a thunderstorm and appearing as a rainbow. Most traditional
societies are like sunlight in its natural condition. The mixed state of
structures is like pure white light-fused, according to the science of optics.
These structures in the traditional societies must be torn apart to make room
for more and more specialised functions in the wake of modernisation. To extend
the original analogy, the thunderstorm acts as a prism to change the pure white
light into a multi-coloured rainbow. As Riggs put it, traditional agricultural
and folk societies, (Agraria), approximate the fused model and modern
industrial societies (Industria) approach the refracted model. The former is
functionally diffused, the latter functionally specific. Intermediate between
these polar extremes is the prismatic model so called because of the prism
through which fused light passes to become refracted.
There are numerous definitions of “culture” taken from
different academic disciplines. These definitions show large similarities
between them. Creating a new public administration system, reforming the
remnants of the colonial civil service, and defining a new public policy agenda
can be an overwhelming task for any independent country. While, in India, the
colonial civil service (ICS) was externally imposed (by the former colonial
power), the newly created national civil service (IAS) has to be the expression
of domestic conditions, societal cultures, and national expectations. The local
milieu, also, is an important factor for public policy formulation and
execution. The relationship between the professional civil service and elected
politicians is crucial for the definition of the political regime and the
efficiency of the civil service. Although there are claims that some civil
service systems are, by definition, apolitical, the politicisation of the
Public Administration is difficult to avoid.
Culture and Politico-Administrative Models Despite the
perception of the civil service as a monolith structure, its characteristics,
texture and operating principles and procedures may vary significantly from one
country to another. The nature of the politician-civil servant relationship may
change due to changes in the dominant political ideology of the time or major
changes in the political leadership. A brief cross-country comparison shows
that two adverse processes are at work. In some countries, there is increasing
political control over public administration to ensure that the bureaucracy
adopts the new political signals; while in others, there appears to be a
relaxation of political control in order to enable the public administration to
adapt to external changes by virtue of its organisational capacities. There is
also a trend of the increasing influence of civil society on the overall
political system in a country.
Models of the Civil Service Theoretically the civil service
systems can be classified into five groups (Peters, 1984; 1988). In the first
model, the clear separation between politicians and administration exists, in
which the civil servants are ready to unquestioningly follow the orders of the
political appointees. The second model (called “village life”) assumes that
civil servants and politicians are both part of a unified state elite and that
they should not be in conflict over power within the government structure
itself. The third model (called “functional village life”) assumes some degree
of integration in civil service and political careers. The fourth model (named
“adverse model”) assumes a significant separation between the two groups
(politicians and bureaucrats), but also there is no clear resolution in their
struggle for power. The fifth model assumes the clear separation between
policy-makers and administration, where, however, civil servants are the
dominant force (see Wilson, 1975). All these models are rather theoretical, and
practice by itself shows different patterns of interaction between politicians
and civil service. Models, however, represent a stylized illustration of
inter-active behaviour (see Giddens, 1971). Every particular civil service
system is primarily “nationally coloured” (Sevic, 1997), and the
“ethos-generated” characteristics cannot be neglected or avoided.
The relationship between politicians and the civil servants
is regulated by law, although in countries with long traditions of an
independent civil service, informal rules play an important role. In recent
years, political culture and attitudes have been given importance when
analysing the politico-administrative relationship.
Heady (1996) developed a model which in many ways
complements the already mentioned Peters’ model. He studies the relationship of
the civil service with the political regime, finding that the civil service can
be ruler responsive, single party responsive, majority party responsive and
military responsive. The socio-economic context, also, influences the
relationship. The civil service can operate in traditional, pluralist, competitive,
mixed, corporatist and centrally planned socio-economic environments.
Focusing on personnel management, he concluded that
different civil service systems can apply the following models: chief
executive, independent agency, divided and ministry-by-ministry. Determining
the quality of the entrance requirements, the civil service system can promote
any of the following: patrimony, party loyalty, party patronage, professional
performance, and bureaucratic determination. Being a social organisation the
civil service must have a sense of mission which is shared within the service
and can be: compliance, cooperation, policy responsiveness, constitutional
responsiveness and guidance. Using the model and taking into account all policy
variables enable us to determine the nature of the politico-administrative
relationship in different civil service systems.
Morgan developed another model, classifying the states into
three categories: integral, patrimonial, and custodial. In an integral state,
the civil service is supposed to behave as a secular, rational policy
instrument in the delivery of ‘development’ through government agencies or
state owned enterprises (Morgan, 1996: 230). The patrimonial state is, in fact,
a less effective integral state caught in the trap of a ‘clientele effect’
(clan, ethnic, religious, territorial and other segregation and/or
favouritism). In the custodial state, the civil service has been seen as a
protector of the very idea of state as a social institution and provides
eternal stability in fairly unstable political conditions. Morgan also analysed
the level of institutionalisation of nation-state, assuming that the civil
service can be anti-state, pro-state, institutional- state and inchoate- state.
Analysing the degree of professionalism, he related value of process and value
of outcomes with professionalism and political responsiveness. Combining all
these, one gets four quadrants which should cover all the existing civil
service systems. According to Morgan, the first quadrant is the pragmatic
field, the second is the patrimonial field, while the third is the positivist
field and finally, the fourth is the absolutist field.
With this theoretical input the author examines the impact
of decisionmaking as a factor in the existing politico-administrative culture
in India.
The 21st Century has witnessed tremendous changes in India,
as in the world in general. There have been regular attempts at administrative
reforms and innovation, both at the Centre and in the states, including
starting of new institutions and systems in India since 1947. Further, besides
persistence of problems of administration with increasing severity, we have
also witnessed in succeeding decades acceleration in the process of
degeneration in our socio-economic, political and administrative scenario.
There are many other burning issues also, such as lack of propriety in the
exercise of administrative discretion; paralysis of political will and capacity
for decision making; mounting administrative corruption and political venality,
leading to erosion in the credibility and effectiveness of democratic
institutions.
Decision making is one of the most important aspects of
administration and is greatly influenced by the prevailing politico-
administrative culture of the organisation. There are various factors which
influence the process of decision making. The interdisciplinary framework of
decision making is one of the important aspects for any administrator for
arriving at a decision.
The decisions affect and are affected by political,
economic, social and the cultural factors prevailing in the environment.
Therefore, the decision making must be suited to the environment. A continuing
situation of necessary interaction between an organisation and its environment
introduces an element of environmental control into the organisation.
Therefore, it is useful to consult the people interested in the decisions such
as interest groups and pressure groups. As problems and issues become more
complex, tools for analysis and decision making will have even greater impact.
Experience tells us that higher the state of economic development, the greater
is the need for managers equipped with tools and techniques useful in decision
making. Rising income will permit expanded consumption and this will lead to
higher standard of living. We will become more organised society and will
depend more upon complex organisations to accomplish our goals. The social idea
of democratic participation, the rise of individualism and individual freedom
and increasing self actualisation will become a more central part of our lives,
both as consumers and as an organised society.
Organisations will make
increasing use of formal techniques modelling in an attempt to describe their
environments and develop intelligent rules to cope with environmental problems.
There can be three decision environments, together with a scale of decision
difficulty. Certainty is the condition where the outcome is specified; risk is
the condition where the possible outcomes can be specified by a probability
distribution; uncertainty indicates no knowledge of the likelihood of the
various outcomes. Decision makers have to function in three types of
environments. In each of these environments, knowledge of the state of affairs
differs.
Decision making under conditions of certainty: In this
environment, only one state of nature exists, that is, there is complete
certainty about the future. Although this environment sometimes exists, it is
usually associated with very routine decisions involving fairly inconsequential
issues; even here it is impossible to guarantee complete certainty about the
future. The techniques of Cost Benefit Analysis, Marginal Analysis, and Net
work analysis are useful in decision making process.
Decision making under the conditions of uncertainty: Here
more than one state of nature exists, but the decision maker has no knowledge
about the various states, not even sufficient knowledge to permit the
assignment of probabilities to the state of nature. The Utility theory,
Preference theory, Decision trees, etc. are useful in decision making process.
Decision making under the conditions of risk: In this
situation, more than one state of nature exists, but the decision maker has
information which will support the assignment of probability values to each of
the possible states. The techniques of O.R. are useful in decision making
process.
Having explained the concept of culture, and the process of
decisionmaking, it is now important to study about the personnel who are
involved in the decision making process.
Personnel System– The Environmental Context Environment is
one of the most important aspects in any study of social situations. When we
consider administration, “environment “is not this physical environment but it
comprises the numerous non-physical relationships which man has created for
himself. Therefore, the term “environment” has a different connotation and
distinctive characteristics. In nature, environment is an integral part and is
unchangeable; in the context of administration, environment is man’s own
creation. Even the man made environment may be unchangeable for many purposes.
In certain circumstances, it may acquire some of the characteristics of the natural
environment itself.
Personnel System is the instrument of public administration
of the State. This system comes in contact with the individual citizen through
individuals who are members of the system itself. It is here the “environment”
and the “institutionalised form of the State” interacts and influences each
other. For understanding the nature of the interaction, it will be necessary to
trace the succession of linkages from “individual” to “environment“on the one
hand and from the” individual” to the “system” on the other. This is a circular
chain which may be roughly represented as follows:
“Individual” ---- “environmental context”--- “organised
state”---- “personnel system”---- “individual”
Any change at any point will influence the entire chain, the
intensity at any point depending on the strength of the change element.
The first concrete manifestation of the environmental
context is the “time spirit” prevailing in the society which represents the sum
total of the social phenomenon or the prevailing ethos in the community
assimilating within itself the social, cultural and religious heritage. “Time
spirit” is the first stage in approaching the personnel system from the
environment end. If we proceed further, we reach the socio-economic situation
in the second stage; thereafter there is the political system and finally, the
administrative system. Thus we have the successive linkages as in the following
sequence:
Environment --- time spirit--- socio-economic situation---political
system--- personnel
The scope of socio-economic situation is narrower. The
political system can be said to be part of the socio-economic situation, but
the two, in some respects and to some extent, are independent as well.
Political system, to a large extent, depends on the socio-economic matrix of
community but the political system, in turn, influences the socio-economic
situation itself. Similar mutual relationship can also be seen between the
political system and administrative system. In this chain of elements, when
change takes place at any point, it manifests itself in all other elements
depending on the strength of casual links.
Personnel System Let us now proceed in other direction to
trace the stages from the “personnel” system end to the “individual” with
reference to whom all processes have to be finally interpreted. We find two
elements, viz. (i) personnel structure and (ii) human element. These two
elements are further connected by another element “personnel technique”. The characteristics
of human element are determined by the group of individuals who man the
personnel system. When we study the personnel system in the context of
environment, we are really studying the interaction of this sub group with the
larger society of which it is a sub group. The above three elements in the personnel
system and individual chain are mutually related and influence each other.
Personnel techniques are devised with reference to the personnel structure.
Similarly, the personnel techniques themselves, in their turn, influence the
personnel structure (Sharma, 1976).
Let us further consider the inter-relationship between the
human element and personnel techniques. The method of recruitment and the
qualifications prescribed are two important factors of personnel techniques.
Minimum qualifications determine the sub group from which the human element can
be drawn. Let us now understand the process of interaction between the
environments and the personnel system. We have noted that the personnel system
itself is determined by the administrative system. In fact, personnel structure
is a function of administrative system. On the other hand, the administrative
system itself will be influenced by the personnel structure. The administrative
system, in a way, is midpoint between the environment and the human element.
Perhaps, the administrative system goes to determine environmental conditions
for the personnel system. Thus, we find a continuing relationship starting from
the environmental context through the personnel system to the human element.
From the environmental context end, we first come to the time spirit, then we
reach socio-economic matrix, political system, administrative system, personnel
structure, personnel techniques and finally the human element (Fig.1). In the
final analysis we want to study the interaction between this sub group
comprising the human element and the environment or the prevailing ethos in the
society. In fact we arrive at different groups of individuals and our problem is
reduced to the study of relationship between a smaller group as defined by
personnel system and the larger community within which it operates.
Internalised Behaviour Pattern– Its Significance It is the
time spirit that determines the value system of an individual and, therefore,
influences his internalised behaviour pattern without any reference to the role
imposed by the membership of an organisation. Another important determinant of
the quality of interaction between the environment and the personnel system is
the role perspective of the individual himself. Sometimes, normative behaviour
patterns for members of different groups are also informally defined. However,
unlike the internalised value system, the roles are externally determined and
superimposed on the individual. Sometimes, we may find clash between one’s
value system and the prescribed role. In real world situation, every individual
member, subject to some constrains, become a central figure in the interaction
game. Man’s relationship with man, his value system, role perception of each
individual, prescribed formal roles, etc. are important elements which
determine the quality of interaction.
To understand the character of the composition of personnel
system we will have to consider two aspects, viz. initial recruitment and
turnover which are important in relation to the interaction between the
personnel system and the community. Internalised value system, which determines
the quality of interaction, depends to a large extent on the initial constitution
of the service and its turnover. Initial recruitment defines the cross-section
of the community from which the group is drawn. Extent of uniformity and
continuity in a civil servant's career determines his capacity of objective
perception to different life situations. If the turnover in civil service is
small, the continuing influence on individual members as the part of the larger
social system is minimal. If the turnover is fast, service traditions will tend
to be weak. Individual members of the group and, therefore the group itself,
continue to renew their contact with the larger society. The internalised value
system of each member is continuously affected by what is happening outside. In
India, where there is little turnover, we find the element of renewing contact
with the society, which is an advantage of quicker turnover, is sought to be
built into it brought other devices (Sharma,1976). Personnel system or
bureaucracy is a groups which a collection of persons perceived to form a
coherent unit to some degree. Groups influence their members in many ways, but
such effects are often produced through roles, status, norms and cohesiveness.
Psychologically, the decision making process depends on the:
(i) personality, (ii) motivation, (iii) attitude and (iv) environment. The
decision making capacity of an individual is greatly influenced by his level of
achievement (achievement oriented), level of affiliation (affiliation
oriented), his need to seek power (power oriented) and his need to stay in group
(gregarious oriented). Those who are high in level of achievement or power are
Type A personality whereas others are Type B personality.
The next important aspect is the level of motivation of an
individual. An individual takes a decision depending on his level of motivation
and type of motivation. Motivation is the process by which activities are
started, directed and sustained so that physical and psychological needs are
fulfilled. Extrinsic type of motivation is in which a person performs an action
because it leads to an outcome that is separate from or external to the person.
Motivation depends on his external motivation (rewards/perks) or internal
motivation (satisfaction).
Personality is the unique way by virtue of which individuals
think, feel and act. It is different from character and temperament but
includes those aspects. The four perspectives of personality are the
psychoanalytic, behaviouristic (including social cognitive theory) humanistic
and trait perspectives
Attitudes are evaluations of any aspect of the social world.
The attitude can be positive, negative or ambivalent. Attitudes are often
acquired from other persons through social learning. Such learning can involve
classical conditioning, instrumental conditioning or observational learning.
Attitudes are also formed on the basis of social comparison– our tendency to
compare ourselves with others to determine whether our view of social reality
is or is not correct. Studies conducted with identical twins suggest that
attitudes may also be influenced by genetic factor, although the magnitude of
such effects varies greatly for different attitudes.
Social influence is the efforts by one or more persons to
change the attitudes or behaviour of one or more other – is also a common part
of life. Most people behave in accordance with social norms most of the time;
in other words they show strong tendencies of conformity. Many factors
determine whether and to what extent, conformity occurs. These include
cohesiveness- the degree of attraction felt by an individual towards some group–group
size and type of social norm operating in that situation– descriptive or
injunctive. We are most likely to behave in ways consistent with norms when
they are relevant to us. Although pressure towards conformity is strong, many
persons resist them, at least part of the time. This resistance seems to stem
from two strong motives; the desire to retain one’s individuality, and then to
desire to exert control over one’s own life. The last is the environment which
can be either harmonious or stressful. All these, have direct impact in the
decision making ability of the individuals who constitute the personnel system.
Stratification within the Personnel System The personnel
system or the civil service is not a single homogeneous entity. The system is
divided both by vertical as well as horizontal lines and there are numerous
groups within it. The composition of different sub groups within the same
personnel system in terms of their social background may be entirely different.
Each group will have its own value systems, its own aspirations and, therefore,
would have qualitatively an entirely different response to any situation. Each
group would, therefore, require different consideration. We can identify
broadly three types:
Type-A: The entire civil service is drawn from a wide social
spectrum. The area of informal contact is universal and co-extensive with the
system itself. The civil services in the urban, particularly metropolitan areas
approximate to this type.
Type-B: A part of the civil service (or higher sub group) is
drawn from higher strata in the society. It has a limited turnover. Other
subgroups are drawn from a wider cross section and the turnover is large. In
this case the area of informal contact of the civil service system with the
society is larger than A.
Type-C: The whole civil service is drawn from a limited
cross section of society and there is limited turnover after initial
recruitment. Or, the initial recruitment may be from a wider spectrum but
afterwards there is purposive insulation. There is practically no area of
informal contact between the personnel system and the society.
If we move from this highly urbanised environment to the
general environmental context, i.e. to small towns, etc.(Type B) we find the
personnel structure up to particular level may have a representative cross
section of the community except for the lowest sub groups.
In the extreme backward area (Type C) the personnel
structure is largely alien to the local community and in a way may be a replica
of the old colonial and feudal system. Even the lowest member of the personnel
system may consider himself superior to the highest in the local community and
take pride in not belonging to it.
Thus we see that neither the environments nor the personnel
system is homogeneous. The personnel system which is drawn for the country as a
whole comprises of diverse culture, religion, caste, tribes and social
background. Though efforts are made to bring some sort of homogeneity depending
on minimum educational qualifications and training which Riggs refers to
improvement, it seems that the social, regional, religious background have
still a great say in their “nurturing”, attitude and behaviour which greatly
influences the decision making capability in various ethnic groups. Having
explained the interaction/relationship between the personnel system and the
citizen/community and the problems there to, in the decision making process, it
is necessary to consider some other barriers to decision making process.
Social Stratification and its Implications In India, as in
many other third world countries, the environment is also not uniform. We have
advanced regions, where the prevailing ethos may be equalitarian and
democratic. On the other extreme, there may be some regions where the old
feudalistic or colonial traditions may be holding ground. This difference may
persist notwithstanding the prevalence of a uniform political and
administrative system throughout. We have already noted that the personnel
system itself is heterogeneous in terms of the social background of its
numerous sub groups. Thus the interaction between the personnel system which
has been devised for the country as a whole and the environment which differs
from place to place is not the same (Basu, 1985).
In urban metropolitan centres the civil service sub group is
not placed at the top of the socio-economic system and is almost
indistinguishable from the general population. It is the political, industrial
or commercial groups which occupy the top position. If we move from this highly
urbanised environment to the general environmental context, i.e. to small
towns, etc. (Type B) we find the personnel structure up to particular level may
have a representative cross-section of the community except for the lowest sub
groups.
Other barriers to decision making process: (i) Perceptual
Blocks: This exists when one is unable to clearly perceive a problem or the
information needed to solve it effectively. They include: (a) seeing only what
one expects to see; (b) Stereotyping; (c) Not recognising problems; (d) Not
seeing the problem in perspective; and (e) Mistaking cause and effect.
(ii) Emotional Blocks: Emotional blocks exist when one
perceive a threat to one’s emotional needs. These include: (a) Fear of making
mistakes; (b) Impatience; (c) Avoiding anxiety; (d) Fear of taking risks; (e)
Need for order; and (f) lack of challenge.
(iii) Intellectual Blocks: Intellectual blocks exist when
one does not have necessary thinking skills to find successful solutions or is
unable to use them effectively. They include: (a) lack of knowledge or skill in
the problem solving process; (b) lack of creative thinking; (c) inflexible
thinking; (d) not being methodical; (e) lack of knowledge or skill in using the
“language” of the problem; and (f) using inadequate information.
(iv) Expressive Blocks: Expressive blocks arise when one is
unable to communicate in the way required to produce an effective solution.
They include: (a) using the wrong language; (b) unfamiliarity with a particular
application of a language; (c) a passive management style; and (d) a dominant
management style.
(v) Environmental Blocks: Environmental blocks are caused by
external obstacles in the social or psychological environment, which prevents
one from solving a problem effectively. Environmental blocks, which exist when
the social or physical environment hinders our problem solving, include: (i)
management style; (ii) distractions; (iii) physical discomfort; (iv) lack of
support; (v) stress; (vi) lack of communication; (vii) monotonous work; and
(viii) Expectations of others.
(vi) Cultural Blocks: Cultural blocks result from our
conditioning to accept what is expected or normal in a given situation.
Cultural blocks exist when our problem solving is hindered by accepting that
some things are good or right and are done, while others are bad or wrong and
are not done. So that we become bound by custom. They include: (i)
unquestioning acceptance of the status quo; (ii) dislike of change; (iii)
Fantasy and humour are not productive; (iv) Feelings, intuition and subjective
judgements are unreliable; (v) over-emphasis on competition or cooperation; and
(vi) taboos.
Decision making, however, is not a matter of mere formal
system. It is also a matter of attitude of people who work in the system. If
they are motivated by will to achieve, desire to deliver the goods, to show
results, if they have a sense of urgency, a sense of function and commitment,
then they will look at everything positively and try to make decisions rather
than delay them. If on the other hand, they are lazy, sluggish and indolent, if
they only wish to play safe, to shirk responsibility and pass on the buck to
others, then they will make references which are not needed which results in
delay and loss of public interest (Dubhashi- 1976).
In the workforce today, organisations are now structured in
a way that almost everyone has some level of decision making ability. Whether
the decisions are big or small, they have a direct impact on how successful,
efficient and effective individuals are on the job. As a result, it is becoming
more and more important for employees to focus on and improve their decision
making abilities.
This may seem as simple as learning from our mistakes, but
it really starts at a much deeper level. Making better decisions starts with
understanding one’s own Emotional Quotient (EQ).While it is often misunderstood
as Intelligence Quotient (IQ), Emotional Quotient is different because instead
of measuring one's general intelligence, it measures one's emotional
intelligence. Emotional Quotient is the ability to sense, understand and
effectively apply the power and acumen of emotions to facilitate high levels of
collaboration and productivity
Social Intelligence Quotient (SQ) The social intelligence
quotient or SQ is a statistical abstraction similar to the ‘standard score’
approach used in IQ tests with a mean of 100. Unlike the standard IQ test, it
is not a fixed model. It leans more to Jean Piaget’s theory that intelligence
is not a fixed attribute but a complex hierarchy of information-processing
skills underlying an adaptive equilibrium between the individual and the
environment. Therefore, an individual can change their SQ by altering their
attitudes and behaviour in response to their complex social environment
Differences from Intelligence Professor Nicholas Humphrey
points to a difference between intelligence and social intelligence. Some
autistic children are extremely intelligent because they are very good at
observing and memorising information, but they have low social intelligence.
Similarly, chimpanzees are very adept at observation and memorisation,
sometimes better than humans, but are inept at handling interpersonal
relationships. What they lack is a theory of other people’s minds. Both
Nicholas Humphrey and Ross Honeywell believe that it is social intelligence, or
the richness of our qualitative life, rather than our quantitative
intelligence, that makes humans what they are; for example what it is like to
be a human being living at the centre of the conscious present, surrounded by
smells and tastes and feels and the sense of being an extraordinary
metaphysical entity with properties which hardly seem to belong to the physical
world. This is social intelligence.
Let us now examine how the processes of training, human
resource development or capacity building or improvements are made to overcome
these shortcomings discussed above. The main aim of training is to develop
skills, i.e. professional skills, behavioural skills and conceptual skills.
Training helps the entrants by inculcating occupational skill and knowledge,
making him familiar with the objective of the department to which he belongs. The
process of training adjusts the employee to his new environment. Training makes
up for any deficiency of the recruits. It helps the employees to keep
themselves aware of the latest development.
The influence of training in overcoming the impediment caused
by the social, economic and cultural background of the officers is of great
relevance. For this purpose the elite group of officers in Himachal Pradesh has
been taken as a sample, interviewed and efforts have been made to analyse their
behaviour and decision making skills in different administrative and social
environment.
There are a total of 103 officers out of whom 88 (85%) are
males and 15(15%) are females. There are three(2.9%) Muslim (male) officers.
The number of Scheduled Caste Officers is nine and the number of ST Officers is
11, respectively. Out of the 103 officers there are 12 Ph.Ds, five M.Tech.s,
three L.L.M.s, 11 M.B.A.s, 34 M.A.s, eight M.Sc.s, one M.Com, one M.B.B.S, 18
B.E.s, 20 L.L.B.s, and rest are graduates. It revealed that at present the
officers of IAS have to undergo five phases of compulsory training. After
undergoing training at the Academy at Mussoorie, they are sent for District
Training at the state of allotment during the 1st phase of training. Thereafter
they go back to the academy for the second phase of training. After completion
of nine years of service they again undergo third phase of training at the
Academy. The fourth phase of training is after the completion of 15 years of
service and the 5th phase is after 25 years of service. However, besides these,
the officers are sent for various trainings both within and outside the country
During the study it was revealed that most of the officers
(85%) were of the view that training is necessary and it keeps them aware of
the latest thinking and techniques of administration. They were of the view
that it improves their thinking and professional skills as well. However, the
majority (72%) were of the view that it had not been possible to use the
various techniques in their day-to-day decision making process. The reason for
the same were many and varied as the general set up was not conducive for
application of the managerial decision making process. However, an interesting
view was provided by one very senior officer who expressed his doubt about the
efficacy of training in the decision making process. He was of the view that
though in the Academy and during service career the officers are exposed to
various training courses, the subsequent use of these techniques are largely
individual based depending on their qualifications, background, attitudes, etc.
Another important fact revealed was that the relatively junior officers were
more interested in training compared to their senior colleagues. However, there
was a majority (65%) feeling that the existing training is more oriented
towards professional skill development and conceptual development as compared
to the behavioural development aspect. There is no conscious effort to make the
personnel system more homogeneous. It was reported that it is automatically
developed by becoming a member of the common service, same cadre, and postings
in different areas and by common training, etc. There are not many exposures to
the cultures, norms, mores values and to the exposures to the background of
other religious/ethnic groups. It is well to bear in mind that the ultimate
success of training rests upon a wise recruitment policy, for training cannot
rectify the original error. Nor can training endow its recipient with the flair
for administration, which is something inborn. This flair may be stipulated,
but it cannot be artificially acquired.
Relationship between Civil Servants and Politicians The
study conducted by Kothari and Roy (1969), though dated, is relevant even now
and furnishes some penetrating insights into the existing relationships between
politicians and the administrators at the district level. Even though the
administrators would like to use their better judgements to meet the demand of
the local situations, they have a propensity to give precedence to the
bureaucratic rules, regulation and procedures. They try to preserve the
bureaucratic autonomy and hierarchy from the pressures of the political
leaders. They do seek support of the political leaders and try to establish
good relations with them but their effort in this direction is much less than
that of political leaders. Administrators do not perceive it as their role to
modify the policy decisions on the advice of the political leaders, nor do they
allow the different socio-economic interests to influence bureaucratic
decisions. The adverse evaluation of each other by the political leaders and
the administrators appears to arise from the insufficient understanding and
appreciation of each other’s role.
We have discussed the various psychological and sociological
factors/ barriers that influence the attitudes, behaviour and other aspects of
the personnel system. Similarly, the knowledge, skill, political and
socioeconomic system of the prevailing environment also have a great impact on
the decision making process. The politico-administrative culture has a great
role in influencing the decision making process. The administrative environment
in this country is not uniform. The society is also heterogeneous consisting of
various linguistic, religious and ethnic groups each having their own ethos,
norms, mores and values which influences the public values in their own way.
The diverse political parties have their own agenda and aspirations and
influence the decision-making process to suit their own goals. The personnel
sub groups drawn from the society also bring with them their traditions,
attitudes and aspirations. Though efforts are made to nurture them to form a
homogeneous group, still the internalised behaviour pattern and the nature do
continue. Besides these the psychological factors also play a great role on the
individual behaviour which affects the decision making process. The public
values, citizen administration relationships, administrator - political
relationship influences the decision making process. Though there are various
models for improving the services and the decision making process, the existing
culture, aspirations of the public, public values, internalised behaviour
pattern of the bureaucracy, politicoadministrative relationship are of prime
importance in the decision making process. The more efficient and effective use
of the existing personnel system, wise recruitment policy, clearing up of
relationship between the political appointees and the professional civil
servants and improving their capacity building is of crucial importance.
Courtesy: http://www.iipa.org.in/upload/full%20journal%20for%20mail.pdf
