Sociologists have long debated whether nature or nurture is
the key to what people are and how they act. Administrative
culture, in its broadest sense is understood as the modal
pattern of values, beliefs, attitudes, and predispositions that
characterise and identify any given administrative system.
The administrative culture of any part of the globe reflects the
distinctiveness and complexity of various regional, national,
and local realities; their unique historical experiences, their
forms of insertion. Such cultures are historical products,
where past experiences, myths, and traditions have shaped
modal psychological orientations.
Any administrative culture is also conditioned by existing structural and conjunctional
circumstances and challenges. Decision making is one of
the most important aspects of administration and is greatly
influenced by the prevailing politico- administrative culture of
the organisation. The interdisciplinary framework of decisionmaking
is one of the important aspects for any administrator
for arriving at a decision. Though efforts are made to nurture
the personnel system to form a homogeneous group, still the
internalised behaviour pattern and the nature do continue.
Besides these, the psychological factors also play a great role
on the individual behaviour which affects the decision making
process. The article examines the decision making process as
a factor of politico-administrative culture.
THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL concept of culture, covers all facets of humans
in society: knowledge, behaviour, beliefs, art, morals, law, customs, etc.
(Singer, 1968). Despite some differences of emphasis, anthropologists
agree that a culture is the way of life of a given society. Sociologists have
long debated whether nature (our biological inheritance) or nurture (our
social inheritance) is the key to what people are and how they act. Most
sociologists hold that both are vital in determining individual personality
and behaviour. Taylor (1913) defined culture as “that complex whole which
includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, laws, customs, and many other
capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society”. Thus,
Taylor’s definition contains three critical components: (i) that complex
whole; (ii) acquired by man; and (iii) as a member of society. Thus, the
inter-connectedness of characteristics that, together, form a culture.
Political culture is defined by the International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences
as “the set of attitudes, beliefs and sentiments that give order and meaning
to a political process and which provide the underlying assumptions and
rules that govern behaviour in the political system”. It encompasses both
the political ideals and operating norms of a polity. Political culture is thus
the manifestation in aggregate form of the psychological and subjective
dimensions of politics. A political culture is the product of both the collective
history of a political system and the life histories of the members of the
system and thus it is rooted equally in public events and private experience”.
Administrative culture, in its broadest sense is understood as the modal
pattern of values, beliefs, attitudes, and predispositions that characterise and
identify any given administrative system. In this inclusive definition both the
private and public spheres of the managerial ethos are covered, for societies
in general possess certain specific ways of “getting things done”, which
transcend the official sphere. The construction of an administrative mind-set
presents significant difficulties. Yet, it is possible to configure clusters of
cultural matrices that have important heuristic value in understanding the
relationship among contexts, structures, behaviours, and effects (Dwivedi
and Nef, 1998).
Two main perspectives may assist us in understanding the politicoadministrative
culture of an organisation. First, the government
administration in all nations happens to be larger and more complex than
any single organisation, being composed of many departments, agencies,
and corporation and so on. Second, policies and administrative decisions get
implemented through the state apparatus, state financial and other resources
are distributed, and the entire society is affected in many ways by attending
administrative culture. The behaviour of the state apparatus depends on
the kind of political and administrative culture prevailing in a country. No
administrative culture is monolithic; instead it is part of wider culture of a
society including its constituent parts such as political, economic, social,
religious, corporate, and civil society cultures. Nevertheless, it is the political
culture that influences the administrative culture most because it brings its
political values to modulate the behaviour of state employees. A composite
administrative culture reflects the values of all constituent parts.
The administrative culture, like all cultures, is not uniform but does
differ (Dwivedi and Nef, 1998). The administrative culture of any part of
the globe reflects the distinctiveness and complexity of various regional,
national, and local realities; their unique historical experiences, their forms
of insertion. Such cultures are historical products, where past experiences,
myths, and traditions have shaped modal psychological orientations.
Any administrative culture is also conditioned by existing structural and
conjunctional circumstances and challenges. The administrative culture is a
part of a larger attitudinal matrix, containing values, practices, and orientations
toward the physical environment, the economy, the social system, the polity,
and cultures itself. Administrative cultures, like all cultures, are dynamic
and subject to change. Syncretism, continuities, and discontinuities are part
and parcel of their fabric and texture. An administrative culture is the result
of a process of immersion, acculturation and socialisation, whose structural
drivers are implicit as well as induced and explicit. Administrative cultures are
influenced by global and regional trends. In the lesser –developed regions of
the world, they are particularly derivative, reflecting a center-priphery mode
of international political economy.
Riggs (1961) has drawn upon the structural–functional approach
that has gained considerable currency in political science in recent times.
According to this approach all societies perform an array of functions such
as administrative functions, religious functions, and economic functions
and so on. Societies usually have a variety of structures that perform the
different functions. In traditional societies, one encounters a few structures,
as a family or a leader that would be performing a whole host of functions
like rule making, rule adjudication, economic allocation even medical
and health administration. As society grows and develops, more and more
specialised structures appear, each one of which becomes engaged in specific
functions. So, differentiation of structures may be looked at as the essence of
development. Using an analogy, Riggs pictures the process of differentiation
as sunlight passing through a thunderstorm and appearing as a rainbow. Most
traditional societies are like sunlight in its natural condition. The mixed state
of structures is like pure white light-fused, according to the science of optics.
These structures in the traditional societies must be torn apart to make room
for more and more specialised functions in the wake of modernisation. To
extend the original analogy, the thunderstorm acts as a prism to change the
pure white light into a multi-coloured rainbow. As Riggs put it, traditional
agricultural and folk societies, (Agraria), approximate the fused model and
modern industrial societies (Industria) approach the refracted model. The
former is functionally diffused, the latter functionally specific. Intermediate
between these polar extremes is the prismatic model so called because of
the prism through which fused light passes to become refracted.
There are numerous definitions of “culture” taken from different
academic disciplines. These definitions show large similarities between
them. Creating a new public administration system, reforming the remnants
of the colonial civil service, and defining a new public policy agenda can
be an overwhelming task for any independent country. While, in India,
the colonial civil service (ICS) was externally imposed (by the former
colonial power), the newly created national civil service (IAS) has to
be the expression of domestic conditions, societal cultures, and national
expectations. The local milieu, also, is an important factor for public policy
formulation and execution. The relationship between the professional civil
service and elected politicians is crucial for the definition of the political
regime and the efficiency of the civil service. Although there are claims that
some civil service systems are, by definition, apolitical, the politicisation
of the Public Administration is difficult to avoid.
Culture and Politico-Administrative Models
Despite the perception of the civil service as a monolith structure, its
characteristics, texture and operating principles and procedures may vary
significantly from one country to another. The nature of the politician-civil
servant relationship may change due to changes in the dominant political
ideology of the time or major changes in the political leadership.
A brief cross-country comparison shows that two adverse processes
are at work. In some countries, there is increasing political control over
public administration to ensure that the bureaucracy adopts the new political
signals; while in others, there appears to be a relaxation of political control
in order to enable the public administration to adapt to external changes by
virtue of its organisational capacities. There is also a trend of the increasing
influence of civil society on the overall political system in a country.
Models of the Civil Service
Theoretically the civil service systems can be classified into five groups
(Peters, 1984; 1988). In the first model, the clear separation between
politicians and administration exists, in which the civil servants are ready
to unquestioningly follow the orders of the political appointees. The second
model (called “village life”) assumes that civil servants and politicians
are both part of a unified state elite and that they should not be in conflict
over power within the government structure itself. The third model (called
“functional village life”) assumes some degree of integration in civil
service and political careers. The fourth model (named “adverse model”)
assumes a significant separation between the two groups (politicians and
bureaucrats), but also there is no clear resolution in their struggle for power.
The fifth model assumes the clear separation between policy-makers and
administration, where, however, civil servants are the dominant force (see
Wilson, 1975). All these models are rather theoretical, and practice by
itself shows different patterns of interaction between politicians and civil
service. Models, however, represent a stylized illustration of inter-active
behaviour (see Giddens, 1971). Every particular civil service system is
primarily “nationally coloured” (Sevic, 1997), and the “ethos-generated”
characteristics cannot be neglected or avoided.
The relationship between politicians and the civil servants is regulated
by law, although in countries with long traditions of an independent civil
service, informal rules play an important role. In recent years, political
culture and attitudes have been given importance when analysing the
politico-administrative relationship.
Heady (1996) developed a model which in many ways complements
the already mentioned Peters’ model. He studies the relationship of the civil
service with the political regime, finding that the civil service can be ruler
responsive, single party responsive, majority party responsive and military
responsive. The socio-economic context, also, influences the relationship.
The civil service can operate in traditional, pluralist, competitive, mixed,
corporatist and centrally planned socio-economic environments.
Focusing on personnel management, he concluded that different
civil service systems can apply the following models: chief executive,
independent agency, divided and ministry-by-ministry. Determining the
quality of the entrance requirements, the civil service system can promote
any of the following: patrimony, party loyalty, party patronage, professional
performance, and bureaucratic determination. Being a social organisation
the civil service must have a sense of mission which is shared within
the service and can be: compliance, cooperation, policy responsiveness,
constitutional responsiveness and guidance. Using the model and taking
into account all policy variables enable us to determine the nature of the
politico-administrative relationship in different civil service systems.
Morgan developed another model, classifying the states into three
categories: integral, patrimonial, and custodial. In an integral state, the
civil service is supposed to behave as a secular, rational policy instrument
in the delivery of ‘development’ through government agencies or state
owned enterprises (Morgan, 1996: 230). The patrimonial state is, in fact,
a less effective integral state caught in the trap of a ‘clientele effect’ (clan,
ethnic, religious, territorial and other segregation and/or favouritism). In
the custodial state, the civil service has been seen as a protector of the
very idea of state as a social institution and provides eternal stability in
fairly unstable political conditions. Morgan also analysed the level of
institutionalisation of nation-state, assuming that the civil service can be
anti-state, pro-state, institutional- state and inchoate- state. Analysing the
degree of professionalism, he related value of process and value of outcomes
with professionalism and political responsiveness. Combining all these, one
gets four quadrants which should cover all the existing civil service systems.
According to Morgan, the first quadrant is the pragmatic field, the second
is the patrimonial field, while the third is the positivist field and finally, the
fourth is the absolutist field.
With this theoretical input the author examines the impact of decisionmaking
as a factor in the existing politico-administrative culture in India.
The 21st Century has witnessed tremendous changes in India, as in the
world in general. There have been regular attempts at administrative reforms
and innovation, both at the Centre and in the states, including starting of new
institutions and systems in India since 1947. Further, besides persistence of
problems of administration with increasing severity, we have also witnessed
in succeeding decades acceleration in the process of degeneration in our
socio-economic, political and administrative scenario. There are many other
burning issues also, such as lack of propriety in the exercise of administrative
discretion; paralysis of political will and capacity for decision making;
mounting administrative corruption and political venality, leading to erosion
in the credibility and effectiveness of democratic institutions.
Decision making is one of the most important aspects of administration
and is greatly influenced by the prevailing politico- administrative culture
of the organisation. There are various factors which influence the process
of decision making. The interdisciplinary framework of decision making is
one of the important aspects for any administrator for arriving at a decision.
The decisions affect and are affected by political, economic, social and
the cultural factors prevailing in the environment. Therefore, the decision
making must be suited to the environment. A continuing situation of
necessary interaction between an organisation and its environment introduces
an element of environmental control into the organisation. Therefore, it is
useful to consult the people interested in the decisions such as interest groups
and pressure groups. As problems and issues become more complex, tools
for analysis and decision making will have even greater impact. Experience
tells us that higher the state of economic development, the greater is the
need for managers equipped with tools and techniques useful in decision
making. Rising income will permit expanded consumption and this will
lead to higher standard of living. We will become more organised society
and will depend more upon complex organisations to accomplish our goals.
The social idea of democratic participation, the rise of individualism and
individual freedom and increasing self actualisation will become a more
central part of our lives, both as consumers and as an organised society.
Organisations will make increasing use of formal techniques modelling in an
attempt to describe their environments and develop intelligent rules to cope
with environmental problems. There can be three decision environments,
together with a scale of decision difficulty. Certainty is the condition where
the outcome is specified; risk is the condition where the possible outcomes
can be specified by a probability distribution; uncertainty indicates no
knowledge of the likelihood of the various outcomes. Decision makers have
to function in three types of environments. In each of these environments,
knowledge of the state of affairs differs.
Decision making under conditions of certainty: In this environment,
only one state of nature exists, that is, there is complete certainty about the
future. Although this environment sometimes exists, it is usually associated
with very routine decisions involving fairly inconsequential issues; even
here it is impossible to guarantee complete certainty about the future. The
techniques of Cost Benefit Analysis, Marginal Analysis, and Net work
analysis are useful in decision making process.
Decision making under the conditions of uncertainty: Here more than
one state of nature exists, but the decision maker has no knowledge about
the various states, not even sufficient knowledge to permit the assignment
of probabilities to the state of nature. The Utility theory, Preference theory,
Decision trees, etc. are useful in decision making process.
Decision making under the conditions of risk: In this situation, more than
one state of nature exists, but the decision maker has information which will
support the assignment of probability values to each of the possible states.
The techniques of O.R. are useful in decision making process.
Having explained the concept of culture, and the process of decisionmaking,
it is now important to study about the personnel who are involved
in the decision making process.
Personnel System– The Environmental Context
Environment is one of the most important aspects in any study of
social situations. When we consider administration, “environment “is not
this physical environment but it comprises the numerous non-physical
relationships which man has created for himself. Therefore, the term
“environment” has a different connotation and distinctive characteristics.
In nature, environment is an integral part and is unchangeable; in the
context of administration, environment is man’s own creation. Even the
man made environment may be unchangeable for many purposes. In certain
circumstances, it may acquire some of the characteristics of the natural
environment itself.
Personnel System is the instrument of public administration of the State.
This system comes in contact with the individual citizen through individuals
who are members of the system itself. It is here the “environment” and the
“institutionalised form of the State” interacts and influences each other. For
understanding the nature of the interaction, it will be necessary to trace the
succession of linkages from “individual” to “environment“on the one hand
and from the” individual” to the “system” on the other. This is a circular
chain which may be roughly represented as follows:
“Individual” ---- “environmental context”--- “organised state”----
“personnel system”---- “individual”
Any change at any point will influence the entire chain, the intensity at
any point depending on the strength of the change element.
The first concrete manifestation of the environmental context is the
“time spirit” prevailing in the society which represents the sum total of the
social phenomenon or the prevailing ethos in the community assimilating
within itself the social, cultural and religious heritage. “Time spirit” is the
first stage in approaching the personnel system from the environment end.
If we proceed further, we reach the socio-economic situation in the second
stage; thereafter there is the political system and finally, the administrative
system. Thus we have the successive linkages as in the following sequence:
Environment --- time spirit--- socio-economic situation---political
system--- personnel
The scope of socio-economic situation is narrower. The political system
can be said to be part of the socio-economic situation, but the two, in some
respects and to some extent, are independent as well. Political system, to
a large extent, depends on the socio-economic matrix of community but
the political system, in turn, influences the socio-economic situation itself.
Similar mutual relationship can also be seen between the political system
and administrative system. In this chain of elements, when change takes
place at any point, it manifests itself in all other elements depending on the
strength of casual links.
Personnel System
Let us now proceed in other direction to trace the stages from the
“personnel” system end to the “individual” with reference to whom all
processes have to be finally interpreted. We find two elements, viz. (i)
personnel structure and (ii) human element. These two elements are further
connected by another element “personnel technique”. The characteristics
of human element are determined by the group of individuals who man the
personnel system. When we study the personnel system in the context of
environment, we are really studying the interaction of this sub group with
the larger society of which it is a sub group. The above three elements in the
personnel system and individual chain are mutually related and influence
each other. Personnel techniques are devised with reference to the personnel
structure. Similarly, the personnel techniques themselves, in their turn,
influence the personnel structure (Sharma, 1976).
Let us further consider the inter-relationship between the human element
and personnel techniques. The method of recruitment and the qualifications
prescribed are two important factors of personnel techniques. Minimum
qualifications determine the sub group from which the human element can
be drawn. Let us now understand the process of interaction between the
environments and the personnel system. We have noted that the personnel
system itself is determined by the administrative system. In fact, personnel
structure is a function of administrative system. On the other hand, the
administrative system itself will be influenced by the personnel structure.
The administrative system, in a way, is midpoint between the environment
and the human element. Perhaps, the administrative system goes to
determine environmental conditions for the personnel system. Thus, we find
a continuing relationship starting from the environmental context through
the personnel system to the human element. From the environmental context
end, we first come to the time spirit, then we reach socio-economic matrix,
political system, administrative system, personnel structure, personnel
techniques and finally the human element (Fig.1). In the final analysis we
want to study the interaction between this sub group comprising the human
element and the environment or the prevailing ethos in the society. In fact
we arrive at different groups of individuals and our problem is reduced to
the study of relationship between a smaller group as defined by personnel
system and the larger community within which it operates.
Internalised Behaviour Pattern– Its Significance
It is the time spirit that determines the value system of an individual
and, therefore, influences his internalised behaviour pattern without any
reference to the role imposed by the membership of an organisation. Another
important determinant of the quality of interaction between the environment
and the personnel system is the role perspective of the individual himself.
Sometimes, normative behaviour patterns for members of different groups
are also informally defined. However, unlike the internalised value system,
the roles are externally determined and superimposed on the individual.
Sometimes, we may find clash between one’s value system and the
prescribed role. In real world situation, every individual member, subject
to some constrains, become a central figure in the interaction game. Man’s
relationship with man, his value system, role perception of each individual,
prescribed formal roles, etc. are important elements which determine the
quality of interaction.
To understand the character of the composition of personnel system
we will have to consider two aspects, viz. initial recruitment and turnover
which are important in relation to the interaction between the personnel
system and the community. Internalised value system, which determines the
quality of interaction, depends to a large extent on the initial constitution of
the service and its turnover. Initial recruitment defines the cross-section of
the community from which the group is drawn. Extent of uniformity and
continuity in a civil servant's career determines his capacity of objective
perception to different life situations. If the turnover in civil service is
small, the continuing influence on individual members as the part of the
larger social system is minimal. If the turnover is fast, service traditions
will tend to be weak. Individual members of the group and, therefore the
group itself, continue to renew their contact with the larger society. The
internalised value system of each member is continuously affected by what is
happening outside. In India, where there is little turnover, we find the element
of renewing contact with the society, which is an advantage of quicker
turnover, is sought to be built into it brought other devices (Sharma,1976).
Personnel system or bureaucracy is a groups which a collection of persons
perceived to form a coherent unit to some degree. Groups influence their
members in many ways, but such effects are often produced through roles,
status, norms and cohesiveness.
Psychologically, the decision making process depends on the: (i)
personality, (ii) motivation, (iii) attitude and (iv) environment. The decision
making capacity of an individual is greatly influenced by his level of
achievement (achievement oriented), level of affiliation (affiliation oriented),
his need to seek power (power oriented) and his need to stay in group
(gregarious oriented). Those who are high in level of achievement or power
are Type A personality whereas others are Type B personality.
The next important aspect is the level of motivation of an individual. An
individual takes a decision depending on his level of motivation and type of
motivation. Motivation is the process by which activities are started, directed
and sustained so that physical and psychological needs are fulfilled. Extrinsic
type of motivation is in which a person performs an action because it leads
to an outcome that is separate from or external to the person. Motivation
depends on his external motivation (rewards/perks) or internal motivation
(satisfaction).
FACTORS AFFECTING DECISION MAKING
Personality is the unique way by virtue of which individuals think,
feel and act. It is different from character and temperament but includes
those aspects. The four perspectives of personality are the psychoanalytic,
behaviouristic (including social cognitive theory) humanistic and trait
perspectives.
Attitudes are evaluations of any aspect of the social world. The attitude
can be positive, negative or ambivalent. Attitudes are often acquired from
other persons through social learning. Such learning can involve classical
conditioning, instrumental conditioning or observational learning. Attitudes
are also formed on the basis of social comparison– our tendency to compare
ourselves with others to determine whether our view of social reality is or
is not correct. Studies conducted with identical twins suggest that attitudes
may also be influenced by genetic factor, although the magnitude of such
effects varies greatly for different attitudes.
Social influence is the efforts by one or more persons to change the
attitudes or behaviour of one or more other – is also a common part of life.
Most people behave in accordance with social norms most of the time;
in other words they show strong tendencies of conformity. Many factors
determine whether and to what extent, conformity occurs. These include
cohesiveness- the degree of attraction felt by an individual towards some
group–group size and type of social norm operating in that situation–
descriptive or injunctive. We are most likely to behave in ways consistent
with norms when they are relevant to us. Although pressure towards
conformity is strong, many persons resist them, at least part of the time.
This resistance seems to stem from two strong motives; the desire to retain
one’s individuality, and then to desire to exert control over one’s own life.
The last is the environment which can be either harmonious or stressful. All
these, have direct impact in the decision making ability of the individuals
who constitute the personnel system.
Stratification within the Personnel System
The personnel system or the civil service is not a single homogeneous
entity. The system is divided both by vertical as well as horizontal lines and
there are numerous groups within it. The composition of different sub groups
within the same personnel system in terms of their social background may
be entirely different. Each group will have its own value systems, its own
aspirations and, therefore, would have qualitatively an entirely different
response to any situation. Each group would, therefore, require different
consideration. We can identify broadly three types:
Type-A: The entire civil service is drawn from a wide social spectrum.
The area of informal contact is universal and co-extensive with the
system itself. The civil services in the urban, particularly metropolitan
areas approximate to this type.
Type-B: A part of the civil service (or higher sub group) is drawn from
higher strata in the society. It has a limited turnover. Other subgroups
are drawn from a wider cross section and the turnover is large. In this
case the area of informal contact of the civil service system with the
society is larger than A.
Type-C: The whole civil service is drawn from a limited cross section
of society and there is limited turnover after initial recruitment. Or, the
initial recruitment may be from a wider spectrum but afterwards there
is purposive insulation. There is practically no area of informal contact
between the personnel system and the society.
If we move from this highly urbanised environment to the general
environmental context, i.e. to small towns, etc.(Type B) we find the
personnel structure up to particular level may have a representative cross
section of the community except for the lowest sub groups.
In the extreme backward area (Type C) the personnel structure is largely
alien to the local community and in a way may be a replica of the old colonial
and feudal system. Even the lowest member of the personnel system may
consider himself superior to the highest in the local community and take
pride in not belonging to it.
Thus we see that neither the environments nor the personnel system
is homogeneous. The personnel system which is drawn for the country
as a whole comprises of diverse culture, religion, caste, tribes and social
background. Though efforts are made to bring some sort of homogeneity
depending on minimum educational qualifications and training which
Riggs refers to improvement, it seems that the social, regional, religious
background have still a great say in their “nurturing”, attitude and behaviour
which greatly influences the decision making capability in various ethnic
groups. Having explained the interaction/relationship between the personnel
system and the citizen/community and the problems there to, in the decision
making process, it is necessary to consider some other barriers to decision
making process.
Social Stratification and its Implications
In India, as in many other third world countries, the environment is
also not uniform. We have advanced regions, where the prevailing ethos
may be equalitarian and democratic. On the other extreme, there may be
some regions where the old feudalistic or colonial traditions may be holding
ground. This difference may persist notwithstanding the prevalence of a
uniform political and administrative system throughout. We have already
noted that the personnel system itself is heterogeneous in terms of the social
background of its numerous sub groups. Thus the interaction between the
personnel system which has been devised for the country as a whole and the
environment which differs from place to place is not the same (Basu,1985)
In urban metropolitan centres the civil service sub group is not placed at the
top of the socio-economic system and is almost indistinguishable from the
general population. It is the political, industrial or commercial groups which
occupy the top position. If we move from this highly urbanised environment
to the general environmental context, i.e. to small towns, etc. (Type B) we
find the personnel structure up to particular level may have a representative
cross-section of the community except for the lowest sub groups.
Other barriers to decision making process:
(i) Perceptual Blocks: This exists when one is unable to clearly perceive
a problem or the information needed to solve it effectively. They include:
(a) seeing only what one expects to see; (b) Stereotyping; (c) Not recognising
problems; (d) Not seeing the problem in perspective; and (e) Mistaking
cause and effect.
(ii) Emotional Blocks: Emotional blocks exist when one perceive a
threat to one’s emotional needs. These include: (a) Fear of making mistakes;
(b) Impatience; (c) Avoiding anxiety; (d) Fear of taking risks; (e) Need for
order; and (f) lack of challenge.
(iii) Intellectual Blocks: Intellectual blocks exist when one does not
have necessary thinking skills to find successful solutions or is unable to use
them effectively. They include: (a) lack of knowledge or skill in the problem
solving process; (b) lack of creative thinking; (c) inflexible thinking; (d) not
being methodical; (e) lack of knowledge or skill in using the “language” of
the problem; and (f) using inadequate information.
(iv) Expressive Blocks: Expressive blocks arise when one is unable to
communicate in the way required to produce an effective solution. They
include: (a) using the wrong language; (b) unfamiliarity with a particular
application of a language; (c) a passive management style; and (d) a
dominant management style.
(v) Environmental Blocks: Environmental blocks are caused by external
obstacles in the social or psychological environment, which prevents one
from solving a problem effectively. Environmental blocks, which exist when
the social or physical environment hinders our problem solving, include:
(i) management style; (ii) distractions; (iii) physical discomfort; (iv) lack
of support; (v) stress; (vi) lack of communication; (vii) monotonous work;
and (viii) Expectations of others.
(vi) Cultural Blocks: Cultural blocks result from our conditioning to
accept what is expected or normal in a given situation. Cultural blocks
exist when our problem solving is hindered by accepting that some things
are good or right and are done, while others are bad or wrong and are not
done. So that we become bound by custom. They include: (i) unquestioning
acceptance of the status quo; (ii) dislike of change; (iii) Fantasy and humour
are not productive; (iv) Feelings, intuition and subjective judgements are
unreliable; (v) over-emphasis on competition or cooperation; and (vi)
taboos.
Decision making, however, is not a matter of mere formal system. It
is also a matter of attitude of people who work in the system. If they are
motivated by will to achieve, desire to deliver the goods, to show results,
if they have a sense of urgency, a sense of function and commitment, then
they will look at everything positively and try to make decisions rather than
delay them. If on the other hand, they are lazy, sluggish and indolent, if
they only wish to play safe, to shirk responsibility and pass on the buck to
others, then they will make references which are not needed which results
in delay and loss of public interest (Dubhashi- 1976).
In the workforce today, organisations are now structured in a way that
almost everyone has some level of decision making ability. Whether the
decisions are big or small, they have a direct impact on how successful,
efficient and effective individuals are on the job. As a result, it is becoming
more and more important for employees to focus on and improve their
decision making abilities.
Individual Decision Making
Group Decision Making
Buying Decision Process
This may seem as simple as learning from our mistakes, but it
really starts at a much deeper level. Making better decisions starts with
understanding one’s own Emotional Quotient (EQ).While it is often
misunderstood as Intelligence Quotient (IQ), Emotional Quotient is different
because instead of measuring one's general intelligence, it measures one's
emotional intelligence. Emotional Quotient is the ability to sense, understand
and effectively apply the power and acumen of emotions to facilitate high
levels of collaboration and productivity.
Social Intelligence Quotient (SQ)
The social intelligence quotient or SQ is a statistical abstraction similar
to the ‘standard score’ approach used in IQ tests with a mean of 100. Unlike
the standard IQ test, it is not a fixed model. It leans more to Jean Piaget’s
theory that intelligence is not a fixed attribute but a complex hierarchy of
information-processing skills underlying an adaptive equilibrium between
the individual and the environment. Therefore, an individual can change their
SQ by altering their attitudes and behaviour in response to their complex
social environment.
Differences from Intelligence
Professor Nicholas Humphrey points to a difference between intelligence
and social intelligence. Some autistic children are extremely intelligent
because they are very good at observing and memorising information, but
they have low social intelligence. Similarly, chimpanzees are very adept
at observation and memorisation, sometimes better than humans, but are
inept at handling interpersonal relationships. What they lack is a theory
of other people’s minds. Both Nicholas Humphrey and Ross Honeywell
believe that it is social intelligence, or the richness of our qualitative life,
rather than our quantitative intelligence, that makes humans what they are;
for example what it is like to be a human being living at the centre of the
conscious present, surrounded by smells and tastes and feels and the sense
of being an extraordinary metaphysical entity with properties which hardly
seem to belong to the physical world. This is social intelligence.
Let us now examine how the processes of training, human resource
development or capacity building or improvements are made to overcome
these shortcomings discussed above. The main aim of training is to
develop skills, i.e. professional skills, behavioural skills and conceptual
skills. Training helps the entrants by inculcating occupational skill and
knowledge, making him familiar with the objective of the department to
which he belongs. The process of training adjusts the employee to his new
environment. Training makes up for any deficiency of the recruits. It helps
the employees to keep themselves aware of the latest development.
The influence of training in overcoming the impediment caused by
the social, economic and cultural background of the officers is of great
relevance. For this purpose the elite group of officers in Himachal Pradesh
has been taken as a sample, interviewed and efforts have been made to
analyse their behaviour and decision making skills in different administrative
and social environment.
There are a total of 103 officers out of whom 88 (85%) are males
and 15(15%) are females. There are three(2.9%) Muslim (male) officers.
The number of Scheduled Caste Officers is nine and the number of ST
Officers is 11, respectively. Out of the 103 officers there are 12 Ph.Ds, five
M.Tech.s, three L.L.M.s, 11 M.B.A.s, 34 M.A.s, eight M.Sc.s, one M.Com,
one M.B.B.S, 18 B.E.s, 20 L.L.B.s, and rest are graduates. It revealed that
at present the officers of IAS have to undergo five phases of compulsory
training. After undergoing training at the Academy at Mussoorie, they are
sent for District Training at the state of allotment during the 1st phase of
training. Thereafter they go back to the academy for the second phase of
training. After completion of nine years of service they again undergo third
phase of training at the Academy. The fourth phase of training is after the
completion of 15 years of service and the 5th phase is after 25 years of
service. However, besides these, the officers are sent for various trainings
both within and outside the country.
During the study it was revealed that most of the officers (85%) were
of the view that training is necessary and it keeps them aware of the latest
thinking and techniques of administration. They were of the view that
it improves their thinking and professional skills as well. However, the
majority (72%) were of the view that it had not been possible to use the
various techniques in their day-to-day decision making process. The reason
for the same were many and varied as the general set up was not conducive
for application of the managerial decision making process. However, an
interesting view was provided by one very senior officer who expressed
his doubt about the efficacy of training in the decision making process. He
was of the view that though in the Academy and during service career the
officers are exposed to various training courses, the subsequent use of these
techniques are largely individual based depending on their qualifications,
background, attitudes, etc. Another important fact revealed was that the
relatively junior officers were more interested in training compared to their
senior colleagues. However, there was a majority (65%) feeling that the
existing training is more oriented towards professional skill development
and conceptual development as compared to the behavioural development
aspect. There is no conscious effort to make the personnel system more
homogeneous. It was reported that it is automatically developed by
becoming a member of the common service, same cadre, and postings in
different areas and by common training, etc. There are not many exposures
to the cultures, norms, mores values and to the exposures to the background
of other religious/ethnic groups. It is well to bear in mind that the ultimate
success of training rests upon a wise recruitment policy, for training cannot
rectify the original error. Nor can training endow its recipient with the flair
for administration, which is something inborn. This flair may be stipulated,
but it cannot be artificially acquired.
Relationship between Civil Servants and Politicians
The study conducted by Kothari and Roy (1969), though dated, is
relevant even now and furnishes some penetrating insights into the existing
relationships between politicians and the administrators at the district level.
Even though the administrators would like to use their better judgements
to meet the demand of the local situations, they have a propensity to give
precedence to the bureaucratic rules, regulation and procedures. They try
to preserve the bureaucratic autonomy and hierarchy from the pressures of
the political leaders. They do seek support of the political leaders and try to
establish good relations with them but their effort in this direction is much
less than that of political leaders. Administrators do not perceive it as their
role to modify the policy decisions on the advice of the political leaders, nor
do they allow the different socio-economic interests to influence bureaucratic
decisions. The adverse evaluation of each other by the political leaders and
the administrators appears to arise from the insufficient understanding and
appreciation of each other’s role.
We have discussed the various psychological and sociological factors/
barriers that influence the attitudes, behaviour and other aspects of the
personnel system. Similarly, the knowledge, skill, political and socioeconomic
system of the prevailing environment also have a great impact
on the decision making process. The politico-administrative culture has a
great role in influencing the decision making process. The administrative
environment in this country is not uniform. The society is also heterogeneous
consisting of various linguistic, religious and ethnic groups each having
their own ethos, norms, mores and values which influences the public values
in their own way. The diverse political parties have their own agenda and
aspirations and influence the decision-making process to suit their own
goals. The personnel sub groups drawn from the society also bring with
them their traditions, attitudes and aspirations. Though efforts are made to
nurture them to form a homogeneous group, still the internalised behaviour
pattern and the nature do continue. Besides these the psychological factors
also play a great role on the individual behaviour which affects the decision
making process. The public values, citizen administration relationships,
administrator - political relationship influences the decision making
process. Though there are various models for improving the services and
the decision making process, the existing culture, aspirations of the public,
public values, internalised behaviour pattern of the bureaucracy, politicoadministrative
relationship are of prime importance in the decision making
process. The more efficient and effective use of the existing personnel
system, wise recruitment policy, clearing up of relationship between the
political appointees and the professional civil servants and improving their
capacity building is of crucial importance.
Courtesy: http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0019556120150110
the key to what people are and how they act. Administrative
culture, in its broadest sense is understood as the modal
pattern of values, beliefs, attitudes, and predispositions that
characterise and identify any given administrative system.
The administrative culture of any part of the globe reflects the
distinctiveness and complexity of various regional, national,
and local realities; their unique historical experiences, their
forms of insertion. Such cultures are historical products,
where past experiences, myths, and traditions have shaped
modal psychological orientations.
Any administrative culture is also conditioned by existing structural and conjunctional
circumstances and challenges. Decision making is one of
the most important aspects of administration and is greatly
influenced by the prevailing politico- administrative culture of
the organisation. The interdisciplinary framework of decisionmaking
is one of the important aspects for any administrator
for arriving at a decision. Though efforts are made to nurture
the personnel system to form a homogeneous group, still the
internalised behaviour pattern and the nature do continue.
Besides these, the psychological factors also play a great role
on the individual behaviour which affects the decision making
process. The article examines the decision making process as
a factor of politico-administrative culture.
THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL concept of culture, covers all facets of humans
in society: knowledge, behaviour, beliefs, art, morals, law, customs, etc.
(Singer, 1968). Despite some differences of emphasis, anthropologists
agree that a culture is the way of life of a given society. Sociologists have
long debated whether nature (our biological inheritance) or nurture (our
social inheritance) is the key to what people are and how they act. Most
sociologists hold that both are vital in determining individual personality
and behaviour. Taylor (1913) defined culture as “that complex whole which
includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, laws, customs, and many other
capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society”. Thus,
Taylor’s definition contains three critical components: (i) that complex
whole; (ii) acquired by man; and (iii) as a member of society. Thus, the
inter-connectedness of characteristics that, together, form a culture.
Political culture is defined by the International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences
as “the set of attitudes, beliefs and sentiments that give order and meaning
to a political process and which provide the underlying assumptions and
rules that govern behaviour in the political system”. It encompasses both
the political ideals and operating norms of a polity. Political culture is thus
the manifestation in aggregate form of the psychological and subjective
dimensions of politics. A political culture is the product of both the collective
history of a political system and the life histories of the members of the
system and thus it is rooted equally in public events and private experience”.
Administrative culture, in its broadest sense is understood as the modal
pattern of values, beliefs, attitudes, and predispositions that characterise and
identify any given administrative system. In this inclusive definition both the
private and public spheres of the managerial ethos are covered, for societies
in general possess certain specific ways of “getting things done”, which
transcend the official sphere. The construction of an administrative mind-set
presents significant difficulties. Yet, it is possible to configure clusters of
cultural matrices that have important heuristic value in understanding the
relationship among contexts, structures, behaviours, and effects (Dwivedi
and Nef, 1998).
Two main perspectives may assist us in understanding the politicoadministrative
culture of an organisation. First, the government
administration in all nations happens to be larger and more complex than
any single organisation, being composed of many departments, agencies,
and corporation and so on. Second, policies and administrative decisions get
implemented through the state apparatus, state financial and other resources
are distributed, and the entire society is affected in many ways by attending
administrative culture. The behaviour of the state apparatus depends on
the kind of political and administrative culture prevailing in a country. No
administrative culture is monolithic; instead it is part of wider culture of a
society including its constituent parts such as political, economic, social,
religious, corporate, and civil society cultures. Nevertheless, it is the political
culture that influences the administrative culture most because it brings its
political values to modulate the behaviour of state employees. A composite
administrative culture reflects the values of all constituent parts.
The administrative culture, like all cultures, is not uniform but does
differ (Dwivedi and Nef, 1998). The administrative culture of any part of
the globe reflects the distinctiveness and complexity of various regional,
national, and local realities; their unique historical experiences, their forms
of insertion. Such cultures are historical products, where past experiences,
myths, and traditions have shaped modal psychological orientations.
Any administrative culture is also conditioned by existing structural and
conjunctional circumstances and challenges. The administrative culture is a
part of a larger attitudinal matrix, containing values, practices, and orientations
toward the physical environment, the economy, the social system, the polity,
and cultures itself. Administrative cultures, like all cultures, are dynamic
and subject to change. Syncretism, continuities, and discontinuities are part
and parcel of their fabric and texture. An administrative culture is the result
of a process of immersion, acculturation and socialisation, whose structural
drivers are implicit as well as induced and explicit. Administrative cultures are
influenced by global and regional trends. In the lesser –developed regions of
the world, they are particularly derivative, reflecting a center-priphery mode
of international political economy.
Riggs (1961) has drawn upon the structural–functional approach
that has gained considerable currency in political science in recent times.
According to this approach all societies perform an array of functions such
as administrative functions, religious functions, and economic functions
and so on. Societies usually have a variety of structures that perform the
different functions. In traditional societies, one encounters a few structures,
as a family or a leader that would be performing a whole host of functions
like rule making, rule adjudication, economic allocation even medical
and health administration. As society grows and develops, more and more
specialised structures appear, each one of which becomes engaged in specific
functions. So, differentiation of structures may be looked at as the essence of
development. Using an analogy, Riggs pictures the process of differentiation
as sunlight passing through a thunderstorm and appearing as a rainbow. Most
traditional societies are like sunlight in its natural condition. The mixed state
of structures is like pure white light-fused, according to the science of optics.
These structures in the traditional societies must be torn apart to make room
for more and more specialised functions in the wake of modernisation. To
extend the original analogy, the thunderstorm acts as a prism to change the
pure white light into a multi-coloured rainbow. As Riggs put it, traditional
agricultural and folk societies, (Agraria), approximate the fused model and
modern industrial societies (Industria) approach the refracted model. The
former is functionally diffused, the latter functionally specific. Intermediate
between these polar extremes is the prismatic model so called because of
the prism through which fused light passes to become refracted.
There are numerous definitions of “culture” taken from different
academic disciplines. These definitions show large similarities between
them. Creating a new public administration system, reforming the remnants
of the colonial civil service, and defining a new public policy agenda can
be an overwhelming task for any independent country. While, in India,
the colonial civil service (ICS) was externally imposed (by the former
colonial power), the newly created national civil service (IAS) has to
be the expression of domestic conditions, societal cultures, and national
expectations. The local milieu, also, is an important factor for public policy
formulation and execution. The relationship between the professional civil
service and elected politicians is crucial for the definition of the political
regime and the efficiency of the civil service. Although there are claims that
some civil service systems are, by definition, apolitical, the politicisation
of the Public Administration is difficult to avoid.
Culture and Politico-Administrative Models
Despite the perception of the civil service as a monolith structure, its
characteristics, texture and operating principles and procedures may vary
significantly from one country to another. The nature of the politician-civil
servant relationship may change due to changes in the dominant political
ideology of the time or major changes in the political leadership.
A brief cross-country comparison shows that two adverse processes
are at work. In some countries, there is increasing political control over
public administration to ensure that the bureaucracy adopts the new political
signals; while in others, there appears to be a relaxation of political control
in order to enable the public administration to adapt to external changes by
virtue of its organisational capacities. There is also a trend of the increasing
influence of civil society on the overall political system in a country.
Models of the Civil Service
Theoretically the civil service systems can be classified into five groups
(Peters, 1984; 1988). In the first model, the clear separation between
politicians and administration exists, in which the civil servants are ready
to unquestioningly follow the orders of the political appointees. The second
model (called “village life”) assumes that civil servants and politicians
are both part of a unified state elite and that they should not be in conflict
over power within the government structure itself. The third model (called
“functional village life”) assumes some degree of integration in civil
service and political careers. The fourth model (named “adverse model”)
assumes a significant separation between the two groups (politicians and
bureaucrats), but also there is no clear resolution in their struggle for power.
The fifth model assumes the clear separation between policy-makers and
administration, where, however, civil servants are the dominant force (see
Wilson, 1975). All these models are rather theoretical, and practice by
itself shows different patterns of interaction between politicians and civil
service. Models, however, represent a stylized illustration of inter-active
behaviour (see Giddens, 1971). Every particular civil service system is
primarily “nationally coloured” (Sevic, 1997), and the “ethos-generated”
characteristics cannot be neglected or avoided.
The relationship between politicians and the civil servants is regulated
by law, although in countries with long traditions of an independent civil
service, informal rules play an important role. In recent years, political
culture and attitudes have been given importance when analysing the
politico-administrative relationship.
Heady (1996) developed a model which in many ways complements
the already mentioned Peters’ model. He studies the relationship of the civil
service with the political regime, finding that the civil service can be ruler
responsive, single party responsive, majority party responsive and military
responsive. The socio-economic context, also, influences the relationship.
The civil service can operate in traditional, pluralist, competitive, mixed,
corporatist and centrally planned socio-economic environments.
Focusing on personnel management, he concluded that different
civil service systems can apply the following models: chief executive,
independent agency, divided and ministry-by-ministry. Determining the
quality of the entrance requirements, the civil service system can promote
any of the following: patrimony, party loyalty, party patronage, professional
performance, and bureaucratic determination. Being a social organisation
the civil service must have a sense of mission which is shared within
the service and can be: compliance, cooperation, policy responsiveness,
constitutional responsiveness and guidance. Using the model and taking
into account all policy variables enable us to determine the nature of the
politico-administrative relationship in different civil service systems.
Morgan developed another model, classifying the states into three
categories: integral, patrimonial, and custodial. In an integral state, the
civil service is supposed to behave as a secular, rational policy instrument
in the delivery of ‘development’ through government agencies or state
owned enterprises (Morgan, 1996: 230). The patrimonial state is, in fact,
a less effective integral state caught in the trap of a ‘clientele effect’ (clan,
ethnic, religious, territorial and other segregation and/or favouritism). In
the custodial state, the civil service has been seen as a protector of the
very idea of state as a social institution and provides eternal stability in
fairly unstable political conditions. Morgan also analysed the level of
institutionalisation of nation-state, assuming that the civil service can be
anti-state, pro-state, institutional- state and inchoate- state. Analysing the
degree of professionalism, he related value of process and value of outcomes
with professionalism and political responsiveness. Combining all these, one
gets four quadrants which should cover all the existing civil service systems.
According to Morgan, the first quadrant is the pragmatic field, the second
is the patrimonial field, while the third is the positivist field and finally, the
fourth is the absolutist field.
With this theoretical input the author examines the impact of decisionmaking
as a factor in the existing politico-administrative culture in India.
The 21st Century has witnessed tremendous changes in India, as in the
world in general. There have been regular attempts at administrative reforms
and innovation, both at the Centre and in the states, including starting of new
institutions and systems in India since 1947. Further, besides persistence of
problems of administration with increasing severity, we have also witnessed
in succeeding decades acceleration in the process of degeneration in our
socio-economic, political and administrative scenario. There are many other
burning issues also, such as lack of propriety in the exercise of administrative
discretion; paralysis of political will and capacity for decision making;
mounting administrative corruption and political venality, leading to erosion
in the credibility and effectiveness of democratic institutions.
Decision making is one of the most important aspects of administration
and is greatly influenced by the prevailing politico- administrative culture
of the organisation. There are various factors which influence the process
of decision making. The interdisciplinary framework of decision making is
one of the important aspects for any administrator for arriving at a decision.
The decisions affect and are affected by political, economic, social and
the cultural factors prevailing in the environment. Therefore, the decision
making must be suited to the environment. A continuing situation of
necessary interaction between an organisation and its environment introduces
an element of environmental control into the organisation. Therefore, it is
useful to consult the people interested in the decisions such as interest groups
and pressure groups. As problems and issues become more complex, tools
for analysis and decision making will have even greater impact. Experience
tells us that higher the state of economic development, the greater is the
need for managers equipped with tools and techniques useful in decision
making. Rising income will permit expanded consumption and this will
lead to higher standard of living. We will become more organised society
and will depend more upon complex organisations to accomplish our goals.
The social idea of democratic participation, the rise of individualism and
individual freedom and increasing self actualisation will become a more
central part of our lives, both as consumers and as an organised society.
Organisations will make increasing use of formal techniques modelling in an
attempt to describe their environments and develop intelligent rules to cope
with environmental problems. There can be three decision environments,
together with a scale of decision difficulty. Certainty is the condition where
the outcome is specified; risk is the condition where the possible outcomes
can be specified by a probability distribution; uncertainty indicates no
knowledge of the likelihood of the various outcomes. Decision makers have
to function in three types of environments. In each of these environments,
knowledge of the state of affairs differs.
Decision making under conditions of certainty: In this environment,
only one state of nature exists, that is, there is complete certainty about the
future. Although this environment sometimes exists, it is usually associated
with very routine decisions involving fairly inconsequential issues; even
here it is impossible to guarantee complete certainty about the future. The
techniques of Cost Benefit Analysis, Marginal Analysis, and Net work
analysis are useful in decision making process.
Decision making under the conditions of uncertainty: Here more than
one state of nature exists, but the decision maker has no knowledge about
the various states, not even sufficient knowledge to permit the assignment
of probabilities to the state of nature. The Utility theory, Preference theory,
Decision trees, etc. are useful in decision making process.
Decision making under the conditions of risk: In this situation, more than
one state of nature exists, but the decision maker has information which will
support the assignment of probability values to each of the possible states.
The techniques of O.R. are useful in decision making process.
Having explained the concept of culture, and the process of decisionmaking,
it is now important to study about the personnel who are involved
in the decision making process.
Personnel System– The Environmental Context
Environment is one of the most important aspects in any study of
social situations. When we consider administration, “environment “is not
this physical environment but it comprises the numerous non-physical
relationships which man has created for himself. Therefore, the term
“environment” has a different connotation and distinctive characteristics.
In nature, environment is an integral part and is unchangeable; in the
context of administration, environment is man’s own creation. Even the
man made environment may be unchangeable for many purposes. In certain
circumstances, it may acquire some of the characteristics of the natural
environment itself.
Personnel System is the instrument of public administration of the State.
This system comes in contact with the individual citizen through individuals
who are members of the system itself. It is here the “environment” and the
“institutionalised form of the State” interacts and influences each other. For
understanding the nature of the interaction, it will be necessary to trace the
succession of linkages from “individual” to “environment“on the one hand
and from the” individual” to the “system” on the other. This is a circular
chain which may be roughly represented as follows:
“Individual” ---- “environmental context”--- “organised state”----
“personnel system”---- “individual”
Any change at any point will influence the entire chain, the intensity at
any point depending on the strength of the change element.
The first concrete manifestation of the environmental context is the
“time spirit” prevailing in the society which represents the sum total of the
social phenomenon or the prevailing ethos in the community assimilating
within itself the social, cultural and religious heritage. “Time spirit” is the
first stage in approaching the personnel system from the environment end.
If we proceed further, we reach the socio-economic situation in the second
stage; thereafter there is the political system and finally, the administrative
system. Thus we have the successive linkages as in the following sequence:
Environment --- time spirit--- socio-economic situation---political
system--- personnel
The scope of socio-economic situation is narrower. The political system
can be said to be part of the socio-economic situation, but the two, in some
respects and to some extent, are independent as well. Political system, to
a large extent, depends on the socio-economic matrix of community but
the political system, in turn, influences the socio-economic situation itself.
Similar mutual relationship can also be seen between the political system
and administrative system. In this chain of elements, when change takes
place at any point, it manifests itself in all other elements depending on the
strength of casual links.
Personnel System
Let us now proceed in other direction to trace the stages from the
“personnel” system end to the “individual” with reference to whom all
processes have to be finally interpreted. We find two elements, viz. (i)
personnel structure and (ii) human element. These two elements are further
connected by another element “personnel technique”. The characteristics
of human element are determined by the group of individuals who man the
personnel system. When we study the personnel system in the context of
environment, we are really studying the interaction of this sub group with
the larger society of which it is a sub group. The above three elements in the
personnel system and individual chain are mutually related and influence
each other. Personnel techniques are devised with reference to the personnel
structure. Similarly, the personnel techniques themselves, in their turn,
influence the personnel structure (Sharma, 1976).
Let us further consider the inter-relationship between the human element
and personnel techniques. The method of recruitment and the qualifications
prescribed are two important factors of personnel techniques. Minimum
qualifications determine the sub group from which the human element can
be drawn. Let us now understand the process of interaction between the
environments and the personnel system. We have noted that the personnel
system itself is determined by the administrative system. In fact, personnel
structure is a function of administrative system. On the other hand, the
administrative system itself will be influenced by the personnel structure.
The administrative system, in a way, is midpoint between the environment
and the human element. Perhaps, the administrative system goes to
determine environmental conditions for the personnel system. Thus, we find
a continuing relationship starting from the environmental context through
the personnel system to the human element. From the environmental context
end, we first come to the time spirit, then we reach socio-economic matrix,
political system, administrative system, personnel structure, personnel
techniques and finally the human element (Fig.1). In the final analysis we
want to study the interaction between this sub group comprising the human
element and the environment or the prevailing ethos in the society. In fact
we arrive at different groups of individuals and our problem is reduced to
the study of relationship between a smaller group as defined by personnel
system and the larger community within which it operates.
Internalised Behaviour Pattern– Its Significance
It is the time spirit that determines the value system of an individual
and, therefore, influences his internalised behaviour pattern without any
reference to the role imposed by the membership of an organisation. Another
important determinant of the quality of interaction between the environment
and the personnel system is the role perspective of the individual himself.
Sometimes, normative behaviour patterns for members of different groups
are also informally defined. However, unlike the internalised value system,
the roles are externally determined and superimposed on the individual.
Sometimes, we may find clash between one’s value system and the
prescribed role. In real world situation, every individual member, subject
to some constrains, become a central figure in the interaction game. Man’s
relationship with man, his value system, role perception of each individual,
prescribed formal roles, etc. are important elements which determine the
quality of interaction.
To understand the character of the composition of personnel system
we will have to consider two aspects, viz. initial recruitment and turnover
which are important in relation to the interaction between the personnel
system and the community. Internalised value system, which determines the
quality of interaction, depends to a large extent on the initial constitution of
the service and its turnover. Initial recruitment defines the cross-section of
the community from which the group is drawn. Extent of uniformity and
continuity in a civil servant's career determines his capacity of objective
perception to different life situations. If the turnover in civil service is
small, the continuing influence on individual members as the part of the
larger social system is minimal. If the turnover is fast, service traditions
will tend to be weak. Individual members of the group and, therefore the
group itself, continue to renew their contact with the larger society. The
internalised value system of each member is continuously affected by what is
happening outside. In India, where there is little turnover, we find the element
of renewing contact with the society, which is an advantage of quicker
turnover, is sought to be built into it brought other devices (Sharma,1976).
Personnel system or bureaucracy is a groups which a collection of persons
perceived to form a coherent unit to some degree. Groups influence their
members in many ways, but such effects are often produced through roles,
status, norms and cohesiveness.
Psychologically, the decision making process depends on the: (i)
personality, (ii) motivation, (iii) attitude and (iv) environment. The decision
making capacity of an individual is greatly influenced by his level of
achievement (achievement oriented), level of affiliation (affiliation oriented),
his need to seek power (power oriented) and his need to stay in group
(gregarious oriented). Those who are high in level of achievement or power
are Type A personality whereas others are Type B personality.
The next important aspect is the level of motivation of an individual. An
individual takes a decision depending on his level of motivation and type of
motivation. Motivation is the process by which activities are started, directed
and sustained so that physical and psychological needs are fulfilled. Extrinsic
type of motivation is in which a person performs an action because it leads
to an outcome that is separate from or external to the person. Motivation
depends on his external motivation (rewards/perks) or internal motivation
(satisfaction).
FACTORS AFFECTING DECISION MAKING
Personality is the unique way by virtue of which individuals think,
feel and act. It is different from character and temperament but includes
those aspects. The four perspectives of personality are the psychoanalytic,
behaviouristic (including social cognitive theory) humanistic and trait
perspectives.
Attitudes are evaluations of any aspect of the social world. The attitude
can be positive, negative or ambivalent. Attitudes are often acquired from
other persons through social learning. Such learning can involve classical
conditioning, instrumental conditioning or observational learning. Attitudes
are also formed on the basis of social comparison– our tendency to compare
ourselves with others to determine whether our view of social reality is or
is not correct. Studies conducted with identical twins suggest that attitudes
may also be influenced by genetic factor, although the magnitude of such
effects varies greatly for different attitudes.
Social influence is the efforts by one or more persons to change the
attitudes or behaviour of one or more other – is also a common part of life.
Most people behave in accordance with social norms most of the time;
in other words they show strong tendencies of conformity. Many factors
determine whether and to what extent, conformity occurs. These include
cohesiveness- the degree of attraction felt by an individual towards some
group–group size and type of social norm operating in that situation–
descriptive or injunctive. We are most likely to behave in ways consistent
with norms when they are relevant to us. Although pressure towards
conformity is strong, many persons resist them, at least part of the time.
This resistance seems to stem from two strong motives; the desire to retain
one’s individuality, and then to desire to exert control over one’s own life.
The last is the environment which can be either harmonious or stressful. All
these, have direct impact in the decision making ability of the individuals
who constitute the personnel system.
Stratification within the Personnel System
The personnel system or the civil service is not a single homogeneous
entity. The system is divided both by vertical as well as horizontal lines and
there are numerous groups within it. The composition of different sub groups
within the same personnel system in terms of their social background may
be entirely different. Each group will have its own value systems, its own
aspirations and, therefore, would have qualitatively an entirely different
response to any situation. Each group would, therefore, require different
consideration. We can identify broadly three types:
Type-A: The entire civil service is drawn from a wide social spectrum.
The area of informal contact is universal and co-extensive with the
system itself. The civil services in the urban, particularly metropolitan
areas approximate to this type.
Type-B: A part of the civil service (or higher sub group) is drawn from
higher strata in the society. It has a limited turnover. Other subgroups
are drawn from a wider cross section and the turnover is large. In this
case the area of informal contact of the civil service system with the
society is larger than A.
Type-C: The whole civil service is drawn from a limited cross section
of society and there is limited turnover after initial recruitment. Or, the
initial recruitment may be from a wider spectrum but afterwards there
is purposive insulation. There is practically no area of informal contact
between the personnel system and the society.
If we move from this highly urbanised environment to the general
environmental context, i.e. to small towns, etc.(Type B) we find the
personnel structure up to particular level may have a representative cross
section of the community except for the lowest sub groups.
In the extreme backward area (Type C) the personnel structure is largely
alien to the local community and in a way may be a replica of the old colonial
and feudal system. Even the lowest member of the personnel system may
consider himself superior to the highest in the local community and take
pride in not belonging to it.
Thus we see that neither the environments nor the personnel system
is homogeneous. The personnel system which is drawn for the country
as a whole comprises of diverse culture, religion, caste, tribes and social
background. Though efforts are made to bring some sort of homogeneity
depending on minimum educational qualifications and training which
Riggs refers to improvement, it seems that the social, regional, religious
background have still a great say in their “nurturing”, attitude and behaviour
which greatly influences the decision making capability in various ethnic
groups. Having explained the interaction/relationship between the personnel
system and the citizen/community and the problems there to, in the decision
making process, it is necessary to consider some other barriers to decision
making process.
Social Stratification and its Implications
In India, as in many other third world countries, the environment is
also not uniform. We have advanced regions, where the prevailing ethos
may be equalitarian and democratic. On the other extreme, there may be
some regions where the old feudalistic or colonial traditions may be holding
ground. This difference may persist notwithstanding the prevalence of a
uniform political and administrative system throughout. We have already
noted that the personnel system itself is heterogeneous in terms of the social
background of its numerous sub groups. Thus the interaction between the
personnel system which has been devised for the country as a whole and the
environment which differs from place to place is not the same (Basu,1985)
In urban metropolitan centres the civil service sub group is not placed at the
top of the socio-economic system and is almost indistinguishable from the
general population. It is the political, industrial or commercial groups which
occupy the top position. If we move from this highly urbanised environment
to the general environmental context, i.e. to small towns, etc. (Type B) we
find the personnel structure up to particular level may have a representative
cross-section of the community except for the lowest sub groups.
Other barriers to decision making process:
(i) Perceptual Blocks: This exists when one is unable to clearly perceive
a problem or the information needed to solve it effectively. They include:
(a) seeing only what one expects to see; (b) Stereotyping; (c) Not recognising
problems; (d) Not seeing the problem in perspective; and (e) Mistaking
cause and effect.
(ii) Emotional Blocks: Emotional blocks exist when one perceive a
threat to one’s emotional needs. These include: (a) Fear of making mistakes;
(b) Impatience; (c) Avoiding anxiety; (d) Fear of taking risks; (e) Need for
order; and (f) lack of challenge.
(iii) Intellectual Blocks: Intellectual blocks exist when one does not
have necessary thinking skills to find successful solutions or is unable to use
them effectively. They include: (a) lack of knowledge or skill in the problem
solving process; (b) lack of creative thinking; (c) inflexible thinking; (d) not
being methodical; (e) lack of knowledge or skill in using the “language” of
the problem; and (f) using inadequate information.
(iv) Expressive Blocks: Expressive blocks arise when one is unable to
communicate in the way required to produce an effective solution. They
include: (a) using the wrong language; (b) unfamiliarity with a particular
application of a language; (c) a passive management style; and (d) a
dominant management style.
(v) Environmental Blocks: Environmental blocks are caused by external
obstacles in the social or psychological environment, which prevents one
from solving a problem effectively. Environmental blocks, which exist when
the social or physical environment hinders our problem solving, include:
(i) management style; (ii) distractions; (iii) physical discomfort; (iv) lack
of support; (v) stress; (vi) lack of communication; (vii) monotonous work;
and (viii) Expectations of others.
(vi) Cultural Blocks: Cultural blocks result from our conditioning to
accept what is expected or normal in a given situation. Cultural blocks
exist when our problem solving is hindered by accepting that some things
are good or right and are done, while others are bad or wrong and are not
done. So that we become bound by custom. They include: (i) unquestioning
acceptance of the status quo; (ii) dislike of change; (iii) Fantasy and humour
are not productive; (iv) Feelings, intuition and subjective judgements are
unreliable; (v) over-emphasis on competition or cooperation; and (vi)
taboos.
Decision making, however, is not a matter of mere formal system. It
is also a matter of attitude of people who work in the system. If they are
motivated by will to achieve, desire to deliver the goods, to show results,
if they have a sense of urgency, a sense of function and commitment, then
they will look at everything positively and try to make decisions rather than
delay them. If on the other hand, they are lazy, sluggish and indolent, if
they only wish to play safe, to shirk responsibility and pass on the buck to
others, then they will make references which are not needed which results
in delay and loss of public interest (Dubhashi- 1976).
In the workforce today, organisations are now structured in a way that
almost everyone has some level of decision making ability. Whether the
decisions are big or small, they have a direct impact on how successful,
efficient and effective individuals are on the job. As a result, it is becoming
more and more important for employees to focus on and improve their
decision making abilities.
Individual Decision Making
Group Decision Making
Buying Decision Process
This may seem as simple as learning from our mistakes, but it
really starts at a much deeper level. Making better decisions starts with
understanding one’s own Emotional Quotient (EQ).While it is often
misunderstood as Intelligence Quotient (IQ), Emotional Quotient is different
because instead of measuring one's general intelligence, it measures one's
emotional intelligence. Emotional Quotient is the ability to sense, understand
and effectively apply the power and acumen of emotions to facilitate high
levels of collaboration and productivity.
Social Intelligence Quotient (SQ)
The social intelligence quotient or SQ is a statistical abstraction similar
to the ‘standard score’ approach used in IQ tests with a mean of 100. Unlike
the standard IQ test, it is not a fixed model. It leans more to Jean Piaget’s
theory that intelligence is not a fixed attribute but a complex hierarchy of
information-processing skills underlying an adaptive equilibrium between
the individual and the environment. Therefore, an individual can change their
SQ by altering their attitudes and behaviour in response to their complex
social environment.
Differences from Intelligence
Professor Nicholas Humphrey points to a difference between intelligence
and social intelligence. Some autistic children are extremely intelligent
because they are very good at observing and memorising information, but
they have low social intelligence. Similarly, chimpanzees are very adept
at observation and memorisation, sometimes better than humans, but are
inept at handling interpersonal relationships. What they lack is a theory
of other people’s minds. Both Nicholas Humphrey and Ross Honeywell
believe that it is social intelligence, or the richness of our qualitative life,
rather than our quantitative intelligence, that makes humans what they are;
for example what it is like to be a human being living at the centre of the
conscious present, surrounded by smells and tastes and feels and the sense
of being an extraordinary metaphysical entity with properties which hardly
seem to belong to the physical world. This is social intelligence.
Let us now examine how the processes of training, human resource
development or capacity building or improvements are made to overcome
these shortcomings discussed above. The main aim of training is to
develop skills, i.e. professional skills, behavioural skills and conceptual
skills. Training helps the entrants by inculcating occupational skill and
knowledge, making him familiar with the objective of the department to
which he belongs. The process of training adjusts the employee to his new
environment. Training makes up for any deficiency of the recruits. It helps
the employees to keep themselves aware of the latest development.
The influence of training in overcoming the impediment caused by
the social, economic and cultural background of the officers is of great
relevance. For this purpose the elite group of officers in Himachal Pradesh
has been taken as a sample, interviewed and efforts have been made to
analyse their behaviour and decision making skills in different administrative
and social environment.
There are a total of 103 officers out of whom 88 (85%) are males
and 15(15%) are females. There are three(2.9%) Muslim (male) officers.
The number of Scheduled Caste Officers is nine and the number of ST
Officers is 11, respectively. Out of the 103 officers there are 12 Ph.Ds, five
M.Tech.s, three L.L.M.s, 11 M.B.A.s, 34 M.A.s, eight M.Sc.s, one M.Com,
one M.B.B.S, 18 B.E.s, 20 L.L.B.s, and rest are graduates. It revealed that
at present the officers of IAS have to undergo five phases of compulsory
training. After undergoing training at the Academy at Mussoorie, they are
sent for District Training at the state of allotment during the 1st phase of
training. Thereafter they go back to the academy for the second phase of
training. After completion of nine years of service they again undergo third
phase of training at the Academy. The fourth phase of training is after the
completion of 15 years of service and the 5th phase is after 25 years of
service. However, besides these, the officers are sent for various trainings
both within and outside the country.
During the study it was revealed that most of the officers (85%) were
of the view that training is necessary and it keeps them aware of the latest
thinking and techniques of administration. They were of the view that
it improves their thinking and professional skills as well. However, the
majority (72%) were of the view that it had not been possible to use the
various techniques in their day-to-day decision making process. The reason
for the same were many and varied as the general set up was not conducive
for application of the managerial decision making process. However, an
interesting view was provided by one very senior officer who expressed
his doubt about the efficacy of training in the decision making process. He
was of the view that though in the Academy and during service career the
officers are exposed to various training courses, the subsequent use of these
techniques are largely individual based depending on their qualifications,
background, attitudes, etc. Another important fact revealed was that the
relatively junior officers were more interested in training compared to their
senior colleagues. However, there was a majority (65%) feeling that the
existing training is more oriented towards professional skill development
and conceptual development as compared to the behavioural development
aspect. There is no conscious effort to make the personnel system more
homogeneous. It was reported that it is automatically developed by
becoming a member of the common service, same cadre, and postings in
different areas and by common training, etc. There are not many exposures
to the cultures, norms, mores values and to the exposures to the background
of other religious/ethnic groups. It is well to bear in mind that the ultimate
success of training rests upon a wise recruitment policy, for training cannot
rectify the original error. Nor can training endow its recipient with the flair
for administration, which is something inborn. This flair may be stipulated,
but it cannot be artificially acquired.
Relationship between Civil Servants and Politicians
The study conducted by Kothari and Roy (1969), though dated, is
relevant even now and furnishes some penetrating insights into the existing
relationships between politicians and the administrators at the district level.
Even though the administrators would like to use their better judgements
to meet the demand of the local situations, they have a propensity to give
precedence to the bureaucratic rules, regulation and procedures. They try
to preserve the bureaucratic autonomy and hierarchy from the pressures of
the political leaders. They do seek support of the political leaders and try to
establish good relations with them but their effort in this direction is much
less than that of political leaders. Administrators do not perceive it as their
role to modify the policy decisions on the advice of the political leaders, nor
do they allow the different socio-economic interests to influence bureaucratic
decisions. The adverse evaluation of each other by the political leaders and
the administrators appears to arise from the insufficient understanding and
appreciation of each other’s role.
We have discussed the various psychological and sociological factors/
barriers that influence the attitudes, behaviour and other aspects of the
personnel system. Similarly, the knowledge, skill, political and socioeconomic
system of the prevailing environment also have a great impact
on the decision making process. The politico-administrative culture has a
great role in influencing the decision making process. The administrative
environment in this country is not uniform. The society is also heterogeneous
consisting of various linguistic, religious and ethnic groups each having
their own ethos, norms, mores and values which influences the public values
in their own way. The diverse political parties have their own agenda and
aspirations and influence the decision-making process to suit their own
goals. The personnel sub groups drawn from the society also bring with
them their traditions, attitudes and aspirations. Though efforts are made to
nurture them to form a homogeneous group, still the internalised behaviour
pattern and the nature do continue. Besides these the psychological factors
also play a great role on the individual behaviour which affects the decision
making process. The public values, citizen administration relationships,
administrator - political relationship influences the decision making
process. Though there are various models for improving the services and
the decision making process, the existing culture, aspirations of the public,
public values, internalised behaviour pattern of the bureaucracy, politicoadministrative
relationship are of prime importance in the decision making
process. The more efficient and effective use of the existing personnel
system, wise recruitment policy, clearing up of relationship between the
political appointees and the professional civil servants and improving their
capacity building is of crucial importance.
Courtesy: http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0019556120150110
