Kautilya’s Realism - Nirmal Jindal

 Courtesy: http://www.kiips.in/research/kautilyas-realism/

Kautilya, popularly known as Chanakya, was the first Realist thinker whose thoughts were critical to the evolution of the theories of statecraft, diplomacy, strategy, and power. He had written Arthashastra in 300 B.C., much before various western thinkers like Machiavelli, Hobbes and Thucydides had written about Realism. Henry Kissinger, in his book ‘World Order’ refers to the Arthashastra as a work that lays out the requirements of power, which is the dominant reality in politics. Kissinger viewed the Arthashastra as ‘a combination of Machiavelli and Clausewitz’. Max Weber, a German sociologist, called it, “truly radical Machiavellianism”. However, as Kautilya wrote Arthashastra centuries before Machiavelli, and as such, Machiavelli could be referred to as the European Chanakya but not the other way round.

Kautilya’s Realism is perceived to be different from the western notions of Realism, and also more apt to the countries of the global South which have traditionally focused on the hard aspects of security since their independence. In the contemporary world as the meaning and dimension of security is transforming, there is a need to revisit Kautilya’s theory of statecraft, diplomacy, and war in order to understand the nuances of security and power pertinent to the countries of the global South. Kautilya, unlike western Realists, adopted a holistic concept of security. In western Realism, war is considered a necessary evil in the anarchical international system, and there is no place for moral values. Kautilya provides an alternate perspective as his theory of power and security is not devoid of morality. He does not consider war essential in achieving state objectives. As per Kautilya, the chief objective of the state should be the welfare of the people. He gave primary importance to a strong treasury for good governance and having a strong defense capability.

Kautilya wanted rulers to aspire to be a Vijigishu (the most powerful king or hegemon) for peace and security. In Kautilya’s parlance, a Vijigishu is the one who desires to conquer other territories. The most obvious import that one derives from the term is one of military expansionism. However, when Kautilya refers to territory, he attributes its meaning to not only the physical territory but also psychological influence and even physical domination. He was against open warfare as it could be very destructive, expensive, and unpredictable. On the contrary, he proposed concealed warfare or secret warfare by other means like intelligence, spies, and deception. He argued that in case a state failed to achieve its objective by methods of Sadgunayas (Sandhi, Samshraya, Davdhibhava, Vigraha, and Asana) and Upayas (Sama, Dana, Danda, Bheda), only then should it resort to war, and only under extreme circumstances. Therefore, he preferred diplomacy and peace to war apropos national interest.

Kautilya prioritized economic development above all and considered it as the backbone of good governance and defense capability of states. A king’s duty in a state is people’s welfare, their protection, and the rule of law. The king’s power is based not only on the expansion of territory but on the loyalties of his subjects. He also believed that the people of any captured state should be treated well. The history of international relations shows that Europeans fought the imperialist wars for the purpose of plunder, loot, and exploitation of human and natural resources. The westerners or Islamic rulers committed atrocities on the people captured during wars. In this regard, Kautilya’s theory is distinct as he never considered plunder, loot, or exploitation of the people as factors in the invasion of territories. In Kautilya’s assessment, the internal stability of states was essential, as internal instability could be more dangerous than external aggressions.

The theory of democracy and good governance is very significant for the countries of the global South which are facing a deficit in good governance and development and are therefore facing serious internal instability, insurgencies, and conflicts which in turn poses a threat to the very fabric of the state system. The world has witnessed that the erstwhile USSR, one of the most powerful countries in the world, disintegrated due to internal instability. The security of the state does not only mean military security but generating security structures from within by establishing a stable political and robust economic system. Kautilya indeed proposed a strong army for the purpose of diplomacy and balance of power.
Kautilya’s understanding of anarchy was reflected in his Mandala theory which is based on the political assumptions that the Vijigishu (ruler) is the center of the Mandala and his immediate neighbors are his Ari or enemy and state next to the immediate neighbors is Vijigishu’s friend or Mitra. Elements of this logic are found in India’s foreign policy. In the present context, India’s foreign relations can be understood in terms of Kautilya’s Mandala theory. India’s relations with countries like Afghanistan and Russia can be categorized as friendly against Pakistan and China which are generally categorized as antagonistic. India’s Look East Policy, BRICS and Shanghai Cooperation Organization reflect India’s interest to develop broader partnerships transcending its immediate neighborhood, as these partnerships are mutually beneficial, unlike alliances during the Cold War in which the two superpowers used their allies against each other. Therefore, India’s policy of polycentrism and multipolarity aims at diplomacy and balance of power.

In the post World War II world scenario, India has been against the concept of Vijigishu, as it has believed in a democratized international system and wants each country to act as an independent actor in the international system. It is for this reason that India adopted the non-alignment policy to keep itself away from the Cold War conflicts and focus on economic development. India developed its nuclear capability, particularly aiming at deterrence, and that has changed its image and power position in global politics. Even, under current circumstances, India’s decision to desist from open warfare with countries is symbolic of its desire to consolidate its growing power by creating partners at the regional and global levels.

*** The author is an Associate Professor at Satyawati College, Delhi University ***

Governance & Morals: In Perspective of Kautilya’s Arthashastra Seema Bhadu and A. V. Singh

 Courtesy: https://www.krishisanskriti.org/vol_image/13Dec201611121109%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20Seema%20Bhadu%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%2068-73.pdf

Abstract—Kautilya, also known as Chanakya or Vishnugupta is one of the most prominent Indian political philosopher. Chanakya played a pivotal role in the formation of the Maurya empire and in the promotion of all round development within the empire. Chanakya policy of Indian history and culture is a treasure-trove. The Chanakya Niti consists of expert knowledge regarding surveillance, maintenance and mobilization of army, general administration, diplomacy, management of agriculture, industrial production and so forth. His contribution in the field of politics and governance is definitely impressive. The Chanakya Niti is still read today by aspiring corporate strategists trying to understand the qualities of a good leader. He assign his opinion regarding the elements of sovereignty, remedies against external and internal troubles of the government, enforcement of rights and duties amongst various grades of administrative staff, etc. For the enforcement of law and order in the empire, criminal and civil laws were also prescribed. Kautilya’s Arthashastra is one of the ancient Indian literature which had provided some insights to management, although the context it was written was for kings to govern the state. There are many Strategic management concepts from Arthashastra, which are still applicable in today’s organizational development. Kautilya’s Arthashastra was written for kings to govern the state. Good governance and stability are intricately linked. If rulers are responsive, accountable, removable, recallable, there is stability. If not, there is instability. This is even more relevant in the present democratic setup. Some of the guidelines of Arthashastra, regarding management and economy are equally relevant and can be helpful in solution of so many problems that the today’s modern corporate world is facing. Kautilya made a great contribution to governance and challenging the Hindu religious thinking by vilifying morals in war and justifying the end. Kautilya’s ideologies on state, statecraft and ethics are very realistic and vastly applicable in today’s context. I feel Kautilya’s work on diplomacy is greatly underrepresented in the western world. Keywords: Treasure-trove, Diplomacy, Intricately, Governance and Vilifying.

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Governance & Morals: In Perspective of Kautilya’s Arthashastra

1. PROLOGUE

The Arthashastra is a treatise of political advice to the king, written by the Indian philosopher, Kautilya, in the 4th century B.C.E. Kautilya divided ‘Arthasastra’ into 15 books, sub divided into 150 chapters in which 180 topics running into 5391 sections (slokas) are discussed containing inter alia institutions of ruler ship, State, administration, law, suppression of criminals, trade, industry, commerce, spying, war, peace, foreign policy, Social Structures, Diplomacy, Ethics, Politics and Statecraft. The first five books arthasastra deal amongst others, with administration of state and law, the next eight with foreign relations, while the last two are miscellaneous in character.

Kautilya, also known as Chanakya or Vishnugupta is one of the most famous Indian political Philosopher. He was a very learned scholar at the Takshashila University, an ancient Hindu university, currently located in Pakistan. He had mastery over political science, economics, accounting, and governance, and he was the dynamic force behind the creation of the Maurya empire. The word, artha, itself, translates to “material well-being”-- in effect, it is the study of economics. The work is, thus, sometimes referred to as “the Science of Material Gain” (Kosambi, 1994 and Raja 2005). In fact as Tisdell has argued there was no parallel in economic philosophy to the Arthasashtra until Adam Smith published The Wealth of Nations (Tisdell, 2006). It has also been translated as the “Scripture of Wealth.” Because of its focus on power, accrued via the sharp instruments of politics, public policy analysis, and administration, the Arthashastra, is also sometimes known as “The Science of Polity,” “Treatise on Polity,” and the “Science of Political Economy (Singh, 1993; Kosambi, 1994; Boesche 2002 and Boesche, 2003). The study and practical applications of the book lost its importance since the British rule. Arthsashtra, dealing with the governance of a country it is also consist three parts of state affairs, namely, state security issues, administration of justice and financial development policies.

Apart from Arthashastra, Kautilya wrote several other books such as Chanakya- Sutras (Rules of Science) and Chanakya-Rajanitisastra (Science of Government Policies). He is India’s most illustrious political economist of all time. Numerous scholars and journalists have highlighted the brilliant gap between word and act in India today - between budgetary outlays and developmental outcomes, between what is recorded in official documents and the ground reality. Governance experts of the World Bank, for instance, say there are numerous weaknesses in the "institutions of accountability". kautilya was a true statesman who bridged the gap between experience and vision. For him, good governance was dominant. The discussion in Arthashastra is as relevant today as it was in Kautilya‟s time. He was

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well-versed with the characteristics of bureaucrats and statesmen and laid down rules to prevent misuse of power. He explained that no amount of rules and regulations or auditing can prevent immoral behavior and that character-building and action-oriented moral values were essential (Bentham 1789). He explains the necessity of having strong government, finances and an able army. It states that the moral duty of the king is to increase prosperity, ensure judicial fairness, and provide national security.

2. KAUTILYA’S GOVERNANCE

Governance refers to "all of processes of governing, whether undertaken by a government, market or network, whether over a family, tribe, formal or informal organization or territory and whether through the laws, norms, power or language (Bevir and Mark 2013). Arthasashtra, one is strike by the political intelligence of its writer, Kautilya, who can be termed one of the shrewdest policy wonks the world has ever known. We need to learn from Indian experience in governance, and Kautilya's Arthashastra is a valuable classic in this regard. The purpose of the Arthasashtra was to be a comprehensive guide for government in the Mauryan Empire, and to aid its ruler to increase the wealth, power and security of the kingdom. Without government, rises disorder as in the Matsya nyayamud bhavayati (proverb on law of fishes). In the absence of governance, the strong will swallow the weak. In the presence of governance, the weak resists the strong (Olivelle and Patrick 2013).

Kautilya emphasized to maintain the standards of public governance in the Mauryan Empire. According to Kautilya, attainment of good governance entails that the objectives of the state are fulfilled and realized. This principle is relevant even today. The three important internal issues for the ruler to attend to are: Raksha—or protection of life and liberty within the state; Palana or law and justice; and, Yogakshema or welfare of the people. These three characteristics are also to be seen to be subsumed in the constitutions of all modern states as-- preservation of Life, Liberty, Justice, Equality and Property. The root of happiness is Dharma (ethics, righteousness), the root of Dharma is Artha (economy, polity), the root of Artha is right governance, the root of right governance is victorious inner-restraint, the root of victorious inner-restraint is humility, the root of humility is serving the aged (J. S. Rajput 2012). Governance relates to "the processes of interaction and decision-making among the actors involved in a collective problem that lead to the creation, reinforcement, or reproduction of social norms and institutions (Hufty and Marc 2011). The concept of Raja-rishi envisaged by Kautilya is very important for a good King. This concept is very close to the concept of “Philosopher King” by Plato. In this concept, Kautilya has identified

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Governance & Morals: In Perspective of Kautilya’s Arthashastra

indicators of good governance. Good governance and stability are inextricably linked. If rulers are responsive, accountable, removable, recallable, there is stability. If not, there is instability. This is even more relevant in the present democratic setup.

3. KAUTILYA’S “MORALITY”

Dharma-sutra teaches morality and lays down duties of the individual and regards deviation from them as sin. Kautilya is a realist and deals with duties, violation of which are regarded as crimes and punished by the state. Prior to kautilya, law and religion were intermixed Kautilya separated it into the two parts.

The Arthashastra then posits its own theory that there are four necessary fields of knowledge, the Vedas, the Anvikshaki (philosophy of Samkhya, Yoga and Lokayata) the science of government and the science of economics (Varta of agriculture, cattle and trade). It is from these four that all other knowledge, wealth and human prosperity is derived. The Kautilya text, thereafter asserts that it is the Vedas that discuss what is Dharma (right, moral, ethical) and what is Adharma (wrong, immoral, unethical), it is the Varta that explain what creates wealth and what destroys wealth, it is the science of government that illuminates what is Nyaya (justice, expedient, proper) and Anyaya (unjust, inexpedient, improper), and that it is Anvishaki (philosophy) that is the light of these sciences, as well as the source of all knowledge, the guide to virtues, and the means to all kinds of acts(Kangle, R. P. 1969).

Kautilya asserted “Philosophy is ever thought of as the lamp of all sciences, as the means of all actions and as the support of all laws (and duties). The root of any state and welfare of people remains in its philosophy and it is also important to maintain ethical standards in every respect. The Arthasashtra was an appealing document in its emphasis on anvishaki, materialism and values at a time when India was worried with issues of spirituality and focus on moksha—the freedom of the soul from the bonds of karma. The values are the lighthouse like lamp, which provide proper direction.

The Raja-rishi has self-control and does not fall for the temptations of the senses, he learns continuously and cultivates his thoughts, he avoids false and flattering advisors and instead associates with the true and accomplished elders, he is genuinely promoting the security and welfare of his people, he enriches and empowers his people, he practices ahimsa (non-violence against all living beings), he lives a simple life and avoids harmful people or activities, he keeps away from another's wife nor craves for other people's property (Rangarajan 1992). The greatest enemies of a king are not others, but are these six: lust, anger, greed,

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conceit, arrogance and foolhardiness. A just king gains the loyalty of his people not because he is king, but because he is just.

4. CONCLUSION

The Arthashastra is/was the science of wealth and warfare, a handbook on efficient statecraft for kings and high-level ministers and officials for whom good governance was to provide the basis for „sustainable‟ development, welfare, and splendor. The Arthashastra is an excellent reminder of the circular motion of the history of states and governance and a reflection upon the fluidity of their rise and fall. Before Kautilya there were other philosophers in India who composed the Shastras but his work was vigorous and encompassed all the treaties written earlier. Kautilya’s work is primarily a book of political pragmatism where State is dominant and King shall carry out duties as advised in his book to preserve his state. He made a great contribution to statecraft and challenging the Hindu religious thinking by vilifying morals in war and justifying the end, I think his key weakness was that he was not a imaginative. He was a great thinker with unlimited imagination as his treatise is not written with experiences or drawn from empirical evidences but out of myths and possibilities. I well thought-out Kautilya for three reasons. Firstly, I wanted to highlight the patterns of thinking in the east. Secondly Kautilya’s ideologies on governance and morals are very rational and greatly applicable in today’s context. Thirdly, I feel Kautilya’s work on diplomacy is significantly underrepresented in the western world. Kautilya’s work is so deep rooted in realism that he goes to describe the gory and brutal means a King must adopt to be in power. This could have been one reason why Ashoka, the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya whom Kautilya advised renounced violence and war thus taking the path of Dharma or Morals. In this paper, I shall primarily focus on Kautilya’s thoughts on good governance and morals. I would conclude by his note on statecraft which says, “A wise king trained in politics, will, even if he possesses a small territory, overpower the whole earth with the help of the best fitted elements of his independence and will never be conquered. Some of the guidelines of Arthashastra, regarding governance and morals are equally relevant and can be helpful in solution of so many problems that the today’s contemporary world is facing.

REFERENCE

[1] Bentham, J. (1789). The Principles of Morals and Legislation. pp. 134-137.
[2] Bevir, Mark (2013). Governance: A very short introduction. Oxford, UK: Oxford

University Press.
[3] Boesche, R. (2002). The First Great Political Realist: Kautilya and His Arthasastra,

Lexington Books, Oxford, U.K.

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[4] Boesche, R. (2003). Kautilya’s Arthasastra: On War and Diplomacy in Ancient India, Journal of Military History, Vol. 67, (January 2003).

[5] French, P. (1983). “Dirty Hands” in Ethics in Government, Prentice-Hall, N.J.
[6] Hufty, Marc (2011). "Investigating Policy Processes: The Governance Analytical Framework (GAF). In: Wiesmann, U., Hurni, H., et al. eds. Research for Sustainable Development: Foundations, Experiences, and Perspectives.". Bern: Geographica

Bernensia: 403–424.
[7] J. S. Rajput (2012), Seven Social Sins: The Contemporary Relevance, Allied, ISBN

978-8184247985, pp 28-29.
[8] Kangle, R. P. (1969), Kautilya Arthashastra, 3 vols, Motilal Banarsidass (Reprinted

2010), ISBN 978-8120800410 pp. 130.
[9] Kosambi, D.D. (1994) The Culture and Civilization of Ancient India, Vikas Publishing

House, New Delhi.
[10] Olivelle, Patrick (2013), King, Governance, and Law in Ancient India: Kauṭilya's

Arthaśāstra pp. 68-69.
[11] Raja, M. G. B. (2005) “Economic Thought in Kautilya’s Arthasashtra,” in Kumar R.J,

and R.L. Basu, eds., Economics in the Arthasashtra, Deep and Deep Publications, New

Delhi.
[12] Rangarajan, L.N. (1992), Kautilya: The Arthashastra, Penguin Classics, ISBN 0-14-

044603-6. pp. 121-122.
[13] Singh, G. P. (1993) Political Thought in Ancient India, D.K. Printworld, New Delhi. [14] Tisdell, C. (2006) “The Arthasashtra as a Basis for Economic Science,” in Kumar R.J,

and R.L. Basu, eds., Economics in the Arthasashtra, Deep and Deep Publications, New Delhi. 

THE CONCEPT OF GOOD GOVERNANCE IN KAUTILYA’S ARTHASHASTRA By ASSISTANT PROFESSOR AJIT DEBNATH

 Courtesy: https://www.ijrar.org/papers/IJRAR2001377.pdf

Abstract:

In recent years, a good number of works has been done on the issues of good governance. Good governance is a term has become an agenda of almost all development institutions. Good governance has different connotations to different organizations. But Kautilys‟sArthashastra is an epochal treatise dealing with the art of government, its functionality, the duties and responsibilities of the king and his ministers and above all the concerns of his subjects. The paper aims to explore the various aspects of good governance reflected in Kautilya‟sArthashastra.

Introduction

Good governance refers to a system in which a government not only fulfils all the common aspirations of its citizens but also promotes the well-being of the entire society.In the words of Kautilya, “In the happiness of the subjects lies the happiness of the king and in what is beneficial to the subjects his own benefit. What is dear to

the king is not beneficial to him, but what is dear to the subjects is beneficial to him”.1 It is the primary concerns of the citizens of any society that the government must be good and effective. Kautilya‟sArthashastra is one of

the most comprehensive treatises ever produced on state power, its acquisition, exercise and disruption. 2. Several characters of the Arthashastrahave particularly become relevant to the present context. AmitavAcharya

notes that we are yet to see such grand theorising from Sumerian, Egyptian, Chinese or Indian pasts, stuck as we are with the idea of Kautilya being an Indian Machiavelli, rather than Machiavelli being a Euro-Mediterranean

Kautilya.3Kautilya contended that establishment of good institutions was indispensable for the attainment of prosperity since they generated conditions favourable to the full exploitation of opportunities but good

governance was essential for providing opportunities. He believed that there is an inseparable link between good governance and accumulation of knowledge.In recent years, a considerable amount of intellectual effort has been

devoted to study the nature of relationship between institutions, good governance and economic growth.4In an age of monarch and legitimised inscriptive inequality, Kautilya alone called the king a servant of the State who would harbour “no personal likes”; it would be rather the likes of the servants that would be followed by

him.”5Thus, good governance is simply something that the government can obtain by any means. Good governance hinges ona wide range of governmental actions and the involvement of a large number of citizens and organizations.

Objective of the Study

Kautilya put emphasis on the notion that institutions are a prerequisite to economic growth, goodgovernance; knowledge, ethical conduct and economic growth are interdependent. Hence the basic objective of the study is to highlight the different parameters of good governance with a special focus on the duties of the king and his functionaries toman theadministration and promote rational will and moral power of the people.

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L.N. Rangarajan(1992)- The Arthashastra is an extraordinary detailed manual on Statecraft and the Science of Living by one of classical India‟s greatest minds, Kautilya.

S. D.Chamola(2007)- KautilyaArthshastra and the Science of Management: Relevance for the Contemporary Society contains some universal truths which transcend the boundaries of time and space and indentifies solutions to the issues being faced by the economics today and to examine the Kautilian Model in the context of contemporary societies.

Roger Boesche(2002)- The first great political realist: Kautilya and his Arthashastra is a succinct and penetrating analysis of one of the ancient world‟s foremost political realists and draws out the essential realist arguments for modern political analysis.

Pradeep K Gautam(2013)- Relevance of Kautilya‟sArthasastra highlights his concepts to political theory and other fields of enquiry, such as intelligence, internal security, war, foreign policy, sociology, political psychology, law, accounting and management.

VinayVittal(2011)- Kautilya‟sArthashastra: A Timeless Grand Strategy provides an insight into the ancient Indian anthology of political wisdom, theory, and the art of statecraft and a strategic treatise that constitute a collection of timeless concepts

M.V. Krishna Rao(1958)- Studies in Kautilya is an objective and thorough examination of Kautilya‟sArthasastra from the standpoint of his own age and society.

Thomas R. Trautmann(1971)-Kautilya and the Arthasastra-A Statistical Investigation of the Authorship and the Evolution of the Text discusses about statecraft, economic policy and military strategy.

Research Methodology

This conceptual paper adapts the methodology for the exploration, understanding and interpretation of ancient textsand content analysis on various sources of information obtained from Kautilya‟s Arthashastra to examine the criterion in good governance.

Kautilya’s concept of Good Governance

According to Kautilya, good governance has three basic objectives: (a) The king should ensure provision of national security and public infrastructure, such as roads to facilitate and promote commerce The king should formulate efficient policies and their effective implementation, removal of all obstructions to economic growth and encourage capital formation,

(C) The king should ensure a fair, caring and clean administration.

Good governance refers to a political system in which the king exercises his power in utilizing the economic and social resources for the welfare of his subjects.Arthashastra states: “In the happiness of his subject lies his happiness; in their welfare his welfare; whatever pleases himself he shall not consider as good, but whatever

makes his subjects happy, he shall consider good‟‟6The work of government is threefold- that which the king sees with his own eyes, that which he knows of indirectly through reports made to him and that which he infers about work not done by knowing about work that has been done.A King is bound to ensure that the common

good (dharma) is preserved.7Thus, good governance is a framework for sustainable human development.

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Kautilya believed that the king should be well educated and disciplined in sciences, committed to good governance of his subjects and have the intention to work for the welfare of the people alike.According to Kautilya, King‟s maintenance of dharma in concrete terms “signified nothing but the defence of the social order

based on family, property and caste.8The king should have the ability to persuade and motivate his ministers and to act as a leader for the achievement of collectively agreed upon goals in specific time.

The objective of good governance is that the king should discharge his duties to cater to the interests and needs of his subjects.When the king possesses good qualities then minister and others dependent upon him for their

success and failure follow his behavior, for the king stands at their apex.9The king should shoulder the responsibility of children, old, childless women, diseased persons and above-all infirm who did not have any

natural guardian to protect them. In Arthashastra alone describes the king a servant of the state who would harbour no personal likes and dislikes; it would be rather the likes and dislikes of the servants that would be

followed by him.10

Appointment of Qualified Ministers

The ministers were appointed by the king on the basis of their quality and ability laid down for different posts. Besides, it is the king‟s prerogative to investigate all the qualities of the persons who were recruited for different posts. Hence, the king himself does all the important appointments on the basis of intelligence and power of experience and also being suitable for the posts.Arthashastra, thus, states that competent and qualified ministers along with highly virtuous and administratively qualified king can only provide good governance to the state.

Mehta finds Arthashastra to be more a treatise on administration than on politics and statecraft.11 Thus, in appointing the qualified and adroit ministers Kautilya wanted to establish that there was the sense of good governance at every step of administration. Kautilya proposed an ethical and sovereign state

Kautilya suggested that the king should be endowed with amicable qualities and possessed of all the elements of sovereignty. According to Kautilya, if one follow the principles reflected in Arthashastra, one must not only preserve dharma(spiritual good),artha(material well-being) andkama(aesthetic pleasure), but also destroy unrighteousness, material loss and hatred.Both Machiavelli and Kautilya have espoused the distinction between morality of the ruler and the ruled and both of them have advised the ruler to rise above the ordinary canons of morality.According to Dunning Aristotle, “never flatly proclaimed the independence of political from moral

doctrine” and in his system it was rather “an incident than an essential.”12Kautilya believed that a king should have the obligations to uphold custom and sacred law and to fulfil the requirements of rajadharma. It is the duty

of the king to protect his people justly and maintain the sovereignty of the state.Hobbes thought that the maintenance of an absolute sovereign was the necessary conditions for preserving peace and inculcating moral virtues among men and according to him it was also the only guarantee against the recurrence of the anarchic

situation as that of the state of nature when there would be no morality, no equity and no justice.13

Welfare nature of the state

Kautilya vouched for a welfare state where the prosperity and welfare of the people were given optimal priority. He was not only concerned about the material welfare of the people but also their moral welfare. “ In the happiness of his subjects lies his happiness; in their welfare his welfare, whatever pleases him he shall not

consider as good, but whatever makes his subject happy, he shall consider good.”14Kautilya maintained that a welfare state was the supreme concern of the ruler. He was not only interested in the material welfare of the people but also in their moral welfare.Aathashastra gives to the welfare of the citizens, the first place in all

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ends for the service of which Kautilya called out an elaborate administrative system.15 The ideal of his welfare- centric state also had the provisions for the advancement of vulnerable and weaker sections of the society

Adaptation of preventive measure

The basic principles of Kautily‟s good governance were supervision and vigilance. He also considered the carrying out of preventive and punitive measures to punish corrupt officials is indicator good governance. Kautilya laid down strict rules of conduct and control. He opined that a well-considered and just punishment makes the people devoted to righteousness, wealth and enjoyment. It has often been proposed, taking clue from his theory of the Origin of State, that Kautilya considered the legally established coercive power of the king to be

the only alternative to the anarchic situation as it prevailed earlier to the establishment of a political order.16 According to Kautilya, punishment if exercised impartially in proportion to the guilt is bound to protect the

world and the next. The king should be alert that the laws breakers be punished. Dandaniti similar to our modern notion of politics as this is necessary for the security and wellbeing of that too much or too little punishment defeats imposes severe punishment exasperates people is defeated. Hence danda or punishment should

proportion to the gravity of the offence.17

Political stability and sagacity of the king

Kautilya‟sArthashastra holds a unique position among the available texts of this genre and in Hindu literature on polity.Kautilya‟s views on politics were largely based on secular politics. He believes that politics must be considered as an independence science. An Indian scholar observes: “of all the schools of ancient Indian political

thought the most note-worthy is that of Kautilya”.18According to Kautilya, knowledge and intelligence was the most important factors in maintaining the kingdom. The pre-eminence which Kautilya occupies among the

ancient Indian political thinkers is also due to his views on politics and ethics. Based on anvikshaki, i.e., reason and logic and past experience, his analysis of the relationship of politics and ethics may be said to reflect the

most enlightened view-point of one of the most distinguished political thinkers of ancient India.19Artha is an imposing element in this world and politics is also related to it. This idea is amply similar to materialist

philosophy of Marx, according to which foregoes the political power.Kautilya held out the contention that political stability was a prerequisite for the growth in knowledge and knowledge was necessary for economic growth and strengthening national security and morality. His Arthashastra is “ truly an anthology of political wisdom and theory and art of statecraft, scattered in pre-Kautilyan writings, streamlined and re-interpreted by

Kautilya in his attempt to construct a separate and distinct science of statecraft.‟‟20Thus Kautilyadeclared that politics was the supreme art and supreme science. The prosperity and utility of all sciences hinged on the well- being politics.

Kautilya’s view on economic growth

Kautilya opined that wealth and wealth alone is important, so far as charity and desire depend upon wealth for their realisation.If the people are prosperous, even a leaderless state can be governed. Prosperity depends on the

intellect. Intellect depends on education.21 Kautilya‟s view is that good government promoted economic growth which, in turn, strengthened national security, ethical conduct, and helped in financing public infrastructure

through higher tax revenues.Kautilya‟s views on economy highlight the modern day‟s core concepts of economics of demand and supply and its combined effect on determination of price. without taking due consideration of demand and supply, price cannot be determined on an equal footing which in turn maintain equally the welfare of consumers and producers.He strongly believed that a king could win public support only

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© 2019 IJRAR April 2019, Volume 6, Issue 2 www.ijrar.org (E-ISSN 2348-1269, P- ISSN 2349-5138) by raising people‟s standard of living. He devised a comprehensive package of economic policies to stimulate economic growth.

Kautilyanoted,„‟Hence the king shall be ever active in the management of the economy. The root of wealth is economic activity and lack of it brings material distress. In the absence of fruitful economic activity, both current prosperity and future growth are in danger of destruction. A king can achieve the desired objectives and

abundance of riches by undertaking productive economic activity‟‟.22Kautilya envisaged that foreign trade could increase the economic prosperity of the trading countries.Kautilya believed that the aim of economic knowledge was to “create and preserve” artha(material well-being). According to

Alfred Marshall, such a role to economic knowledge gave to economics its modern aim of seeking after such

knowledge as may help to raise quality of human life.23Thus, Kautilya applied his economic philosophy not only for upholding the economic status of the state, but also for managing state activities.

Conclusion

Kautilya reiterated that government could generate good institutions and could stipulate good governance but it could not instil desire among the people to take advantage of the existing opportunities. He considered that good policies were designed to create opportunities and fair institutions were needed to utilize those opportunities. However, elements of good governance are not solely dependent on the function of the government itself, but it equally hinges on the mutual cooperation, understanding and involvement of the majority of the citizens and organisations.

References ;

1. Bandopadya,N.C.,Development of Hindu Polity and Political Theories(MunshiramManoharlal, New Delhi), 1980.

2. Rangarajan, L. N. TherapieArthashastra, trans.; Penguin: New Delhi 1992.

3. Acharya, A. Dialogue and Discovery: In Search of International Relations Theories Beyond the West. Millennium 2011, 39 (3), 619–637.

4. Sihag, B. S. Kautilya on Institutions, Governance, Knowledge, Ethics and Prosperity. Humanomics 2007, 23 (1), 5–28.

5. “Presented in a Symposium on „Stability and Good Governance” Organized at A. N. Sinha Institute of Social Studies, Patna on Aug 18, 1998.

6. Arthashastra, Chapter x1x; Bk. 1, p 39.

7. Diwedi, O. P. Common Good and Good Governance: Administrative Theology- Dharma of Public Officials. Indian J. Public Admin. 1990, 36 (3, Jul–Sept.), 261.

8. Sharma, R. S., Aspects of Political Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India, 11th (Ed); Delhi, 1959, p 62.

9. Aiyangar, K. V. R., Some Aspects of Ancient Indian Polity; Madras University Press: Madras, 1935, pp 53–54.

10. Shamasastry, R.; Kautilya‟s Arthashastra, W. Mission Press, Mysore, 1992, P. 39.

12. Mehta, V. R., Foundations of Indian Political Thought, Manohar, New Delhi, 1992 (reprint 1999), pp 94–95.Dunning, W. A., A History of Political Theories: Ancient and Medieval (New York, 1961), p298.

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© 2019 IJRAR April 2019, Volume 6, Issue 2 www.ijrar.org (E-ISSN 2348-1269, P- ISSN 2349-5138) 13. Book, A.; Vol. 1, p 39, Chapter XIX.

14. Blackstone, W. T., Political Philosophy: An Introduction (New York, 1973), pp 50–53.

15. Sharan, P., Ancient Indian Political Thought and Institution, Meenakshi Prakashan, Meerut, 1978, p 186.

16. Kautilya, S. K. Studies (Delhi 1975), 25.

17. Brown, D.M., Indian Political Thought: From Manu to Gandhi, Jaico Publishing House 1964, 59.

18. Sciatore, B. A., Ancient Indian Political Thought and Institutions (Bombay, 1963), p 60.

19. RangaswamiAiyangar, K. V., Considerations on Some Aspects of Ancient Indian Polity (Madras, 1916), p 35.

20. Ramaswamy, T. N., Essentials of Indian Statecraft (Bombay, 1962), p 1.

21. Kautilya, V. C. [4th Century BCE] 2000b, Maxims of Chanakya, (Subramanian, V. K., Malik, S., trans.); Abhinav Publications: New Delhi.

22. Ballard, C. L.; Fullerton, D. Distortionary Taxes and the Provision of Public Goods. J. Econ. Perspectives. 1992, 6 (3), 117–131.

23. Marshall, A., Principles of Economics, 8th(Ed); Macmillan: London, 1920.

Kautilya Arthashastra and its relevance to Urban Planning Studies - Sameer M. Deshkar

 Courtesy: https://www.itpi.org.in/uploads/journalfiles/jan8_10.pdf

Abstract

The knowledge of the traditional practices is being highlighted for resolving many issues in the present day context related with the survival of human settlements. There exist very few records and testimonies of urban planning practices in India and the ones, which are available, need to be properly understood. This article is an attempt to appraise one such master treaty, the Arthashastra, and bring forth some of its salient features pertaining to urban planning policies in ancient times in India.

1. INTRODUCTION

The Hindu philosophy prescribes four great aims of human life viz. Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha which encode the essence of moral well being, material well being, achieving worldly pleasures and attaining salvation. While all these fundamentals are relative and hold relevance at various stages of one’s life, the nitis based on these fundamentals acted as references for design and development of the ancient Indian cities, which were epitome of Hindu culture. A lot has been recorded and written about these fundamentals through various Nitis and Shastras but hardly few are understood really in the modern day context. Secondly, the study of history of Indian city planning is restricted to few marvels and their design features. Very less is available and studied about ancient policies in terms of the town planning norms, social structure, economic status and general regulations for various aspects related with urban life. While there are numerous treatises such as Manusmruti, Shukra Niti, Vaastu Shastra, etc., which dictate the forms of shelters and towns, Kautilya’s Arthashastra is considered to be a comprehensive treaty and addresses those entire essential fundamentals specific to the practices of design and development of human settlements.

The inferences derived at various points in this paper are not very exclusive and the article is an attempt towards developing some understanding regarding the policies for growth of urban locations during the historic times in India.

2. THE ARTHASHASTRA

Of various scriptures from ancient times in India, the Kautilya’s Arthashastra is one such treatise which elaborates the elemental features of a sovereign society. As quoted by many scholars it is a very comprehensive compilation of various other Hindu treatises relating to the social, economic and spiritual growth of human kind. There are around four distinct schools of thought and thirteen individual

Sameer M. Deshkar, is Lecturer in Department of Architecture and Planning, Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology, Nagpur. He is Associate Member of Institute of Town Planners, India (AITPI). Email: sdeshkar@gmail.com

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teachers referred to the complete compilation of the masterly work by Kautilya. However, these references on various occasions in the Arthashastra are either to derive a new approach or to defy their significance against the newly derived ones.

Written by Kautilya, also known as Chanakya and Vishnugupta, around 350 B.C., Arthashastra literally means ‘Scripture of Wealth’. To Chanakya, the source of livelihood of man is wealth and that for a nation the wealth is in the form of both the territory of the state and its inhabitants with variety of occupations. No wonder the scripture also prescribes measures to protect this wealth from various calamities, natural as well as manmade. It places a great emphasis on the welfare of the people and delegates the ethics and morality of urban living. Through number of verses, the Arthashastra also dictate measures for environmental protection and animal welfare.

The treatise is a masterpiece which covers a wide range of topics like statecraft, politics, military warfare, law, accounting systems, taxation, fiscal policies, civil rules, internal and foreign trade, etc. Subjects including medicine, gemology, metallurgy, measures of length, tables of weights and divisions of time etc. are also highlighted along with many others. Often referred to as a guide to Political Sciences and Fundamentals of Management, the treatise also throws light on the evolution of urban studies in ancient India. Although less has been explored in this direction, it provides an insight into assessing and enhancing the capacities of the states in managing the adverse and disastrous situations due to natural or manmade reasons.

3. THE COUNTRY OF KAUTILYA

From the point of understanding the economic policies and a social structure advocated by Kautilya, it is important to know the size of the country he envisaged. During the period, which can be ascribed to Arthashastra, i.e. between 4th century B.C. and 150 A.D., there were empires and kingdoms that were ruled by an oligarchy of chiefs or a King. Obviously, therefore, the protection of one’s territory and the wealth was the key factor in deciding the extent of territorial boundaries and their nature. At the same time for the rulers to have a complete administrative control over the territory was equally important. Therefore, the extent of the territories was governed mainly by the abilities of the rulers to defend it.

But as history tells us, Chanakya was a revolutionary thinker who did not conceive mere kingdoms but instead a complete nation. This makes it critical to exactly visualize the Kautilyan country. Also the hierarchical terms like Janapada, Maha- Janapada, Gana-rajya and Rashtra are often reflected in the Chanakya’s vocabulary on territories. Since these terminologies are referred differently in different contexts, this makes it further difficult to precisely define the extent of the country.

Kautilya envisaged natural features like mountains, valleys, plains, deserts, forests, lakes and rivers as the frontier regions, which provided the oppor-tunities to defend

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(Source: Wikipedia)

Fig.1 The Maha-janapadas in India during 600 B.C.

the country at the times of war or any such circumstances1. Since a smaller region cannot have all these features together, it can be inferred that the geographical extent of the Kautilyan country was of larger size. Secondly, the policies on foreign relations of a state defined on the basis of theory of mandala indicate the existence of at least dozen states situated with close peripheries within the borders of India. Therefore, the state visualized in Arthashastra can be supposed to be as large

as a modern state in present day India. The scale of salaries laid down for various state servants also supports this proposition.

The country thus defined was divided into four provinces with a town as the headquarters of each province. The main city was fortified and located in the central part of the country (Fig. 2) with perennial source of water. The countryside was marked with villages located amidst pasture lands and lands for agriculture. Water from rivers and lakes was impounded for agriculture with the help of dams and embanked. Forests for recreation and for economic benefits were grown adjoining to the countryside. The frontier regions in the Kautilyan country were marked with elephant forests and untamed jungles. The jungles were inhabited by the tribes who possessed the knowledge of Regional Geography and its use in warfare. These tribes were given certain special rights and were not completely under the control of the king. Since Kautilya also prescribed some impingent regulations for environmental and animal welfare, the tribes could have also been given the rights over the natural resources in areas they inhabited. The frontiers were protected by the forts built especially on the trade routes to other countries.

1 Such considerations were also evident during ages that followed and were used in the strategic planning of Fort Cities in India by various rulers.

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4. ON URBANISATION AND URBAN MANAGEMENT

Fig. 2 Hypothetical Sketch of the State as Conceived by Kautilya

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From the perspective of
understanding the principles
of design, development and
management of settlements,
Kautilya prescribed that it is
important to know the kind of
urbanization he conceptu-
alized. He mentions a well
defined hierarchy of the
urban centers and the
administrative divisions. These
divisions were based mainly on
the size of population and
were influenced by the
resources available in the
region and opportunities for
economic development. The
smallest division was a village
consisting of each not less than
a hundred families and not
more than five hundred
families of agricultural people
with boundaries extending as
far as a krósa (2,250 yards).
Apparently Kautilya also
envisioned certain quality of
life for the inhabitants by
specifying population density
and kind of physical
developments in various parts
of the town. Further, in his
policies on urbanization,
Kautilya encourages migration
to the countryside in order to
prevent overcrowding into
the cities. This ensured a
control over population as well as building densities and thus also reduced the hazard risks in city centers. The policy might also have been implied on widely spreading out the population across the nation, not just concentration in particular cities or national capitals thus supporting integrated and comprehensive growth of the regions. However, such outward regions were essentially with well developed agrarian economy.

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Fig.3 Administrative Divisions Based on the Size of Population

Kautilya encouraged and invited people from other places to come and settle down in the countryside. He also advocated the formation of thickly populated places either on new sites or on old ruins thus building up a human capital and advancing economic generation through trade. He suggested taking measures to induce foreigners to immigrate to the kingdom for developing human resources and knowledge sharing.

However, the arrangement of various settlements within a region was essentially based on the resource profile of that region and their strategic positions for defense. The order of the settlements was also guided by the criticality of their position with respect to the defense policy of the ruler. From the perspective of managing the divisions, Kautilya adopted clustered approach with each cluster

comprising of certain number of villages. A cluster of around eight hundred villages was to be centered by a stháníya a (a fortress of that name), four hundred villages by a drónamukha, two hundred villages by a khárvátika and sangrahana in the midst of a collection of ten villages. These centers acted as town halls or probably like the hierarchical local governing authorities supporting the administrative functioning of the state. Kautilya further states the structure and duties of various cadres in the said centers and details out the likely punishments for not following the duties.

4.1 On Land Use and Built Form

In building up the state, Kautilya regarded land with rich environmental resources such as forests, soils for agriculture, minerals, etc; as very valuable commodities. Depending upon the productivity of the soil, he demarcated suitable uses for such lands. For example the pasture grounds were to be provided only on the uncultivable tracts. There is also an elaborate description of the classification of land based on the rainfall it receives. Kautilya further suggests the crop patterns to be raised on each of such categorized lands. However, to realize the maximum value out of land, Kautilya notes the importance of human exertion more than the actual quality of land. ‘The value of land is what man makes out of it.’

The chapter on land use further details out the type of plantations to be raised corresponding to a specific category of land use. Land suitable for sóma plantation and with forest having delicious fruit trees, bushes, bowers, and thorn less trees, safe from the dangers from animate or inanimate objects was to be denoted for

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Fig 4: Classification of Landuses

Landuses

Crown Land

Productive

Arable

Private Land Forests

Pastures

Non-Productive
Reserved for Ascetics

For Produce Elephant Forests

Reservoirs

Mines

Other

For Recreation

Wild Life Sanctuaries

Crown Property

Private Property

Leased to Private Operators

Crown Operated

Land Suitable for Settlement

Waste Land

Source: Kautilya The Arthashastra by L.N.Rangarajan

institutions for religious learning and for the performance of penance by the Brahmanas. The recreational spaces with huge water bodies having harmless animals and surrounded by plantations were to be developed separately for the royal family and for common public but on the periphery of the settlement.

However, any building (sáláh) intended for sports and play was not permitted in the village. Areas for performances by various entertainers like drummers, dancers,

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buffoons and bards were also not encouraged and their performances in village were restricted as they might distract and disturb the people working in the village.

Boundaries of settlements were to be denoted either by a river, a mountain, forests, bulbous plants (grishti), caves, artificial buildings (sétubandha), or by trees such as sálmali (silk cotton tree), samí (Acacia Suma), and kshíravriksha (milky trees). The units for manufacturing goods based on forest products were set up in the proximity of forests usually on the outskirts of the settlement. But the forests with elephants were to be protected and were to be separated from wild tracts as well as the timber forests, specifically designated for exploiting timber resources and for procuring all kinds of forest-produce.

While anticipating the social as well as safety concerns arising from rise in population, Kautilya prescribed a set of regulations for settlement layout and building byelaws. Adhering to some extent to the ancient treatises and traditional knowledge systems, he promoted the principles of Vastushastra pertaining to the form and layout of settlements. Although Kautilya mocks the belief in planetary positions as means of leading a prosperous life and gaining wealth, he recommends the traditional settlement layout based on Vastushastra to exploit social beliefs and gullible people. Of all descriptions on building construction methods, the one on defense structures is well elaborated. Buildings of residential use were specified to be built of wood. Since the region Magadha was prone to earthquakes, wood must have been specified mainly to minimize the risk of casualties during earthquake.

The fort had three roads running East-West and three running North-South with twelve gates provided with both land and water-way kept secret for approach and exit. The width of various roads varied depending upon the land use they connected and the characteristics of the users.

5. ON CALAMITIES

According to Kautilya, a variety of calamities can afflict the population of a state as most people lived in the countryside outside the fortified town. Town or the fort was usually well planned compared to the outer settlements. The sufferings of the people could be due to acts of god or men. Acts of god are mentioned in the text in a number of chapters (4.3, 8.4, 9.7) out of which 4.3 (fire) has most extensive treatment.

Calamities by men are numerous and include depredations of armies, internal strife, and decadence, harassment by queen, mistresses, princes, important ministers, rebellious guilds or chiefs, dangers from forests especially from one with elephants.

Calamities due to acts of god are fire, floods, diseases and epidemics and feminine. Other calamities could include ‘divine origins’ like rats, wild animals, snakes and evil spirits. In the following sections the corresponding deities (most of which are natural forms) are mentioned for worshiping in the advent of these calamities. This

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refers to the philosophy rooted in Hindu religion on environmental conservation and the ‘five elements’ or Pancha Mahabhootas.

Deliberating on the relative seriousness of the calamities, scholars opine that fire is more dangerous as destruction by fire is irremediable and that one can escape floods by wooden planks or swimming and damages can be reduced. But Chanakya considers floods more serious than fire as floods may destroy hundreds of villages whereas fire destroys only one village or a part of it. He further mentions that during the rainy seasons the villagers living near the river banks shall move to higher grounds and shall keep a collection of wooden planks, bamboo and boats. Making a note on the civic responsibility he points out that persons carried away by floods shall be rescued using gourds, skin bags, tree trunks, canoes, boats and thick ropes. Owners of canoes shall be punished if they do not try to save someone in danger.

Responsibilities of the municipal administration and the citizens for preventing the fire outbreaks in more crowded cities are given in detail and the verses even mention subsequent punishments in cases of failing to follow the respective responsibilities. A sense of prevention and early warning system is enforced through these responsibilities applicable to all. It also stresses the importance of structurally sound houses and states that no one shall cause injury to others by the collapse of a rickety dwelling or an unsupported pillar or beam. With a view to warding off the evil consequences of rain, the top of the roof shall be covered with a broad mat, not to be blown by the wind. Neither shall the roof be such as it easily bends or breaks. Violation of this rule shall be punished.

Kautilya suggests that no land prone to famine conditions be taken over for any development. However, the king may encourage any person trying to improve the conditions through various means such as developing forests or by not imposing any tax over such measures. During famine, the king shall show favor to his people by providing them with seeds and provision (bíjabhaktopagráham). He may either do such works as are usually resorted to in calamities. He may show favors by distributing either his own collection of provisions or the hoarded income of the rich among the people or by seeking help from his friends among kings. Or the king with his subjects may emigrate to another kingdom with abundant harvest or seashores or to the banks of rivers or lakes. He may cause his subjects to grow grains, vegetables, roots, and fruits wherever water is available. He may, by hunting and fishing on a large scale, provide the people with wild beasts, birds, elephants, tigers or fish.

While describing the sector plans for the town he mentions that those who work by fire (blacksmiths) shall all together live in a single locality. Further Chanakya proposes that vessels filled with water shall be kept in thousands in a row without confusion not only in big streets and at places where four roads meet but also in front of the royal buildings for ensuring the quick response to the situation of any fire in the

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town. However, a strict regulation was imposed for prohibiting the movement of people during the interval between six nálikas (2 2/5 hours) after the fall of night and six nálikas before the dawn. But movement to extinguish the outbreak of fire shall not be interrupted or arrested.

Talking of the responsibilities of the townsmen in the prevention of fire, Chanakya says that in the summer citizens shall take appropriate precautions against fire. They shall not light fires during the two middle quarters of the day. If the food has to be cooked during this period, it shall be done outside the house. Chanakya’s emergency equipments included five water pots, a big jar, a through ladder, an axe for chopping down pillars and beams, a winnowing basket for fanning away the fire, a hook to pull away burning parts, hooked rake for pulling away thatch and a skin bag. He advocates this as a regulation for every householder failing which there are fines and punishments in the form of panas or currency. At the same time he gives importance to the peoples’ capacity as ‘first respondents’ when he mentions that if a house catches fire, every occupant, owner or tenant, shall take immediate steps to put it out. To avoid the casualties and for ease of evacuation, Chanakya advices householders to stay near the front doors of their houses during night and do not collect together. To minimize the risk by fire he suggests that the citizens should have a common fireplace. While describing the building regulations he even mentions that the places for fire shall be at least 1 aratni or 1 pada (about a foot and half) from the nearing wall should have a water jar. Moreover, fines for not hastening to protect a house from fire as well as letting house catch fire through negligence are imposed. Chanakya takes a hard stand in the case of Arson (deliberately setting fire) and mentions a subsequent punishment of death by fire.

6. CONCLUSIONS

How much do we alter the policies for growth of the human settlements, the basic principles are bound to remain constant so long as they address a wholesome development of the human kind. What do we learn from the past surely depends on how we look at it. Kautilya Arthashastra, also commonly known as the Kuta-niti, has been referred mainly for its significance in the political history of India. Hence there is a common misconception that it deals only with the tricks and tactics pertaining to the state politics. Secondly, with the changing face of politics in the modern times it is seen as a great document only for all those in the field of public vote capturing. The few principles discussed above may seem very general but the way they are proposed to be implemented follows the principles for making a cohesive society.

REFERENCES

Rangarajan, L.N. (1992) Kautilya, the Arthashastra, Penguin Classics, New Delhi. Kangle, R.P. (1965) The Kautilya Arthashastra, Part III, M.B. Publishers, Delhi. Nehru, J.L. (2004) The Discovery of India, Penguin Classics, New Delhi.